Fairbanks 


Topical  Outline  of 
Geography 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


>•-? 


SOUTHERN  BRANUn, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY, 

<U>S  ANGELES,  CALIF. 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE 

OF 

GEOGRAPHY 

FAIRBANKS 

PART  V 

AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA  AND  THE 
ISLANDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC 


TOPICAL  OUTLINES 

OF 

GEOGRAPHY 

Part 

I- 

-North  America. 

Part 

II- 

—South  America. 

Part 

II] 

— Europe. 

Part 

IV 

— Asia. 

Part 

V- 

-Africa,  Australia 

and 

ISL 

VXDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC. 

TOPICAL  OUTLINE 


OF 


GEOGRAPHY 


PART  V 

AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA  AND  THE 
ISLANDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC 


Developed  According  to  the  Problem  Method  and 
Including  the  Changes  Brought  About  by  the  World  War 


BY 

H.  W.  FAIRBANKS,   Ph.D. 

Author  of  "Stories  of  Our  Mother  Earth,"  Rocks  and  Minerals,  Home 

Geography,  Practical  Physiography,  Conservation  Reader , 

Western   United  Stales,  Geography  of 

California,    etc. 


PHILADELPHIA 
P.   BLAKISTON'S    SON    &    CO 

1012   WALNUT   STREET 


Copyright,  1921,  by  P.  Blakiston's  Son  &  Co. 


THK    MAI'LK    l'KEHK    YOKK    1'A 


G- 


PREFACE 

This  small  geography  is  one  of  a  series  in  which  the 
natural  regions  of  the  different  continents  are  topically 
and  progressively  studied  from  the  "problem"  point  of 
view.  The  aim  is  to  guide  the  pupil  to  true  geographical 
concepts — to  a  clear  understanding  of  the  relation  exist- 
ing between  the  people  and  their  environment,  rather 
than  to  a  mere  memorizing  of  tiresome  details,  which,  in 
these  texts,  but  serve  as  temporary  stepping-stones  to  a 
broad  and  abiding  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

The  boundaries  of  the  different  regions  are  depicted 
by  a  simple  physical  map.  Where,  however,  more 
detail  is  desired  the  pupil  is  referred  to  an  atlas  or  to 
the  maps  in  the  larger  books. 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Africa 187 

Africa,  Problem  of iqo 

The  Atlas  or  Mediterranean  Region 197 

Cape  Colony 200 

Topics  for  Oral  Discussion  or  Written  Reports 201 

The  Sahara  Desert 201 

Topics  for  Oral  Discussion  or  Written  Reports 205 

Egypt 205 

Topics  for  Oral  Discussion  or  Written  Reports 210 

The  Sudan '. 210 

Topics  for  Oral  Discussion  or  Written  Reports 213 

The  Tableland  of  East  Africa 213 

Topics  for  Oral  Discussion  or  Written  Reports  .    . 217 

The  Congo  Poorest 217 

Topics  for  Oral  Discussion  or  Written  Reports 220 

The  South  African  Tableland 221 

Topics  for  Oral  Discussion  or  Written  Reports 224 

The  African  Islands 224 

Australia,  Map  Studies 225 

Australia,  Problem  of 226 

Australia,  Special  Problems 234 

Topics  for  Oral  Discussion  or  Written  Reports 235 

The  Islands  of  the  Pacific,  Map  Studies      236 

The  Islands  of  the  Pacific,  Problem 237 

New  Zealand 240 

New  Guinea 242 

The  Hawaiian  Islands 244 

The  Fiji  and  Samoan  Islands 245 

Topics  for  Oral  Discussion  or  Written  Reports 246 


PART  V 

AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA  AND  THE 
ISLANDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC 

SECTION  I.  AFRICA 
TOPIC 

AFRICA :— THE  SECOND  IN  SIZE  OF  THE  CON- 
TINENTS BUT  NEXT  TO  AUSTRALIA  THE 
LEAST  IMPORTANT,  BECAUSE,  LYING 
MOSTLY  IN  THE  TROPICS  AND  HAVING 
A  SURFACE  POSSESSING  LITTLE  VARIETY, 
IT  OFFERS  CONDITIONS  GENERALLY  SO 
UNFAVORABLE  TO  PROGRESS  THAT,  WITH 
SOME  REMARKABLE  EXCEPTIONS,  ITS 
NATIVE  INHABITANTS  ARE  STILL  IN  THE 
SAVAGE  STATE. 

What  conditions  have  we  already  learned  are  in 
general  most  favorable  to  the  progress  of  any 
people  in  civilization? 

i.  Security  from  attack  by  enemies. 

2.  Sufficient  but  not  too  much  water. 

3.  A  healthful  climate. 

4.  The  necessity  of  working  to  supply  their  wants. 

5.  Wild  animals  capable  of  domestication. 

In  what  parts  of  the  ancient  world  already  studied  did 
people    have    surroundings    favorable    to    their 
progress? 
1.  The    rich    agricultural    regions     of     Mesopotamia. 
Turkestan,  China,  and  India. 

187 


1 88  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

2.  The  Mediterranean  border  region  favoied  the  early 
development  of  both  agriculture  and  trade. 

Are  the  conditions  favorable  to  progress  in  modern 
times  the  same  as  those  of  ancient  times? 

i.  In  ancient  times  men  had  not  gained  the  control 
over  Nature  that  they  have  today. 

2  Such  countries  as  France,  England  and  the 
United  States  have  developed  a  high  culture  more 
because  of  the  energy  of  their  people  than  of  their 
surroundings. 

3.  Opportunities  for  mining,  manufacturing  and  trade 
have  a  more  important  influence  upon  progress  now  than 
in  ancient  times. 

Upon  what  is  success  in  agriculture  based? 

1 .  The  nature  of  the  surface  and  soil  are  important. 

2.  The  temperature,  amount  of  sunshine  and  water 
must  be  suitable. 

What  have  we  previously  discovered  as  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  tropics  upon  people? 

1.  Great  heat  is  not  unhealthful  if  the  climate  is  dry. 

2.  Highlands  in  the  tropics  possess  a  very  favorable 
climate. 

3.  Hot  moist  tropical  lowlands  are  favorable  neither  to 
the  white  race  nor  to  the  dark  skinned  natives. 

Where  should  we  expect  that  the  development  of 
people  from  a  savage  to  a  civilized  life  would  be 
delayed  or  not  take  place  at  all? 

1.  Where  the  struggle  with  cold  is  too  great  as  in  the 
Arctic  regions. 

2.  Where  Nature  supplies  everything  without  exertion 
on  the  part  of  inhabitants  as  in  the  tropical  islands. 

3.  In  desert  regions  where  there  is  a  little  water  but  not 
enough  for  the  inhabitants  to  live  comfortably  as  in 
Arabia  and  Mongolia. 


AFRICA  189 

Where  should  we  expect  to  find  no  permanent 
inhabitants? 

1.  In  the  Arctic  region  beyond  the  limit  of  food  supplies. 

2.  In  deserts  where  the  rainfall  affords  forage  for 
animals  only  a  part  of  the  year. 

3.  Upon  very  high  mountains  and  plateaus. 

What  have  we  farther  learned  as  to  the  advantages 
of  those  sub -tropical  or  temperate  regions  where 
there  is  no  rain  at  all  or  the  summers  are  rainless, 
provided  there  is  water  for  irrigation? 

1.  Irrigation  is  much  more  certain  to  produce  crops 
than  chance  rains  and  thus  encourages  exertion. 

2.  A  river  flowing  through  a  desert,  provided  it  supplies 
water  during  the  growing  season  affords  support  for  a 
dense  agricultural  population. 

3.  Large  springs  form  oasis  which  are  among  the  most 
productive  and  luxuriant  spots  in  the  world. 

What  have  we  discovered  has  been  the  influence  of 
different  features  of  the  earth's  surface  upon 
communication? 

1.  A  broken  coast  line  favors  trade  and  travel. 

2.  Navigable  rivers  and  lakes  make  communication 
easy  between  different  parts  of  a  continent  as  well  as  be- 
tween the  coast  and  the  interior. 

3.  Marshes  and  jungles  hinder  communication. 

4.  Lofty  mountain  ranges  form  serious  barriers 

5.  Waterless  deserts  are  almost  impassable. 

In  conclusion  we  should  call  to  mind  the  effect  upon 
different  peoples  of  easy  or  difficult  communica- 
tion. 

1.  Easy  communication  leads  to  trade  especially  if  the 
countries  concerned  produce  different  things. 

2.  Trade  leads  to  the  exchange  of  ideas  and  to  the 
progress  of  peoples. 


190  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

3.  Regions  difficult  of  access  continue  to  be  inhabited 
by  people  in  a  backward  condition  if  their  surroundings 
are  unfavorable  to  progress. 

4.  Where  life  conditions  are  very  favorable  people  will 
make  progress  even  though  completely  cut  off  from 
intercourse  with  others. 

PROBLEMS 

HOW  IS  IT  THAT  THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  GREATER 
PART  OF  AFRICA  REMAIN  IN  SUCH  A  BACK- 
WARD AND  SAVAGE  CONDITION  THAT 
THEIR  LAND  IS  KNOWN  AS  "THE  DARK 
CONTINENT"  AND  HAS  ONLY  RECENTLY 
BEEN  FULLY  EXPLORED,  NOTWITHSTAND- 
ING THE  FACT  THAT  IN  THE  NORTHERN 
PART  THERE  EXISTS  THE  REMAINS  OF 
THE  OLDEST  KNOWN  CIVILIZATION? 

What  features  of  Africa  as  shown  upon  a  good  phys- 
ical map  appear  unfavorable  to  the  progress  of  its 
inhabitants? 

1.  The  greater  part  lies  in  the  tropics. 

2.  The  surface  appears  to  be  a  plateau  possessing  along 
much  of  its  border  a  higher  mountain  rim. 

3.  The  shore  line  is  remarkably  regular  with  few  bays. 

4.  The  coast  lowlands  appear  to  be  narrow. 

5.  The  northern  part  lies  in  the  trade  wind  belt,  the 
winds  coming  from  desert  Arabia. 

6.  The  trade  winds  of  the  southern  part  blow  off  the 
Indian  Ocean  but  are  partly  cut  off  from  the  interioi  by 
the  mountainous  rim  of  the  plateau. 

7.  The  rivers  flow  rapidly  in  descending  from  the 
plateau  to  the  coast. 

What  features  of  Africa  appear  favorable  to  the  prog- 
ress of  its  inhabitants? 


AFRICA  191 

i.  Much  of  the  plateau  is  high  so  that  the  heat  cannot 
be  as  great  as  we  should  ordinarily  expect  in  the  tropics. 

2.  A  part  of  the  Mediterranean  border  has  the  same 
climate  as  the  peninsulas  of  Southern  Europe. 

3.  The  extreme  southern  part  has  a  Mediterranean 
climate 

4.  The  northern  part  is  easily  reached  from  Europe  and 
Asia. 

5.  A  great  river  affords  a  highway  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  the  heart  of  the  continent. 

Why  is  it  that  within  the  tropical  belt  of  Africa  there 
is  found  the  largest  desert  as  well  as  the  largest 
tropical  forest  in  the  world? 

A.  The  Sahara. 

1.  The  Atlas  Mountains  cut  off  the  westerly  storms  so 
that  they  carry  no  rain  to  the  region  known  as  the  Sahara. 

2.  The  trade  winds  that  blow  across  the  Sahara  are  dry 
bringing  no  rain. 

3.  The  monsoon  winds  from  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  blow 
across  the  Sahara  but  bring  only  a  little  rain  because  they 
pass  from  a  cool  ocean  to  a  hot  land. 

B.  The  Tropical  Forest. 

1.  The  belt  of  tropical  calms  and  rains  crosses  the  heart 
of  the  continent. 

2.  Near  the  equator  rains  fall  during  every  season  of 
the  year. 

3.  Toward  the  borders  of  the  tropical  belt  there  are 
two  rainy  and  two  dry  seasons. 

Why  is  it  that  in  Africa  the  climatic  belts  of  the  north- 
ern half  are  repeated  in  a  reverse  order  in  the 
southern  half? 

1.  Africa  is  divided  almost  equally  by  the  equatorial 
belt  with  its  tropical  forest. 

2.  The  Sudan  grass  lands  north  of  the  forest  are  repeated 
in  the  South  African  Belt. 


192        •  PROGRESSIVE   GEOGRAPHIES 

3.  The  Sahara  Desert  is  repeated  in  the  south  by  the 
Kalahara  Desert. 

4.  The  Mediterranean  belt  of  the  Atlas  Mountains  is 
found  in  the  extreme  southern  end  of  Cape  Colony. 
Why  is  the  yearly  variation  in  temperature  over  the 

most  of  Africa  small? 

1.  The  greater  part  of  Africa  lies  in  the  tropics  where 
it  is  always  warm. 

2.  The  extreme  north  and  south  of  Africa  reach  into 
the  temperate  zone  where  the  yearly  range  in  temperature 
is  considerable. 

Why  is  it  that  although  the  extreme  ends  of  Africa  ex- 
tend into  a  climatic  belt  favorable  to  progress  that 
remains  of  ancient  civilizations  are  found  only  in 
the  north? 

1.  The  northern  part  is  easily  reached  from  Asia  and 
Europe  by  both  water  and  land. 

2.  South  Africa  was  once  practically  inaccessible  by 
land. 

3.  No  sailors  got  as  far  as  Cape  of  Good  Hope  until 
Vasca  de  Gama  in  1498. 

What  remarkable  feature  of  Africa  has  had  little 
influence  upon  the  natives  but  has  been  of  much 
aid  to  recent  explorations? 

1.  The  Eastern  Rift  Valley  with  its  lakes — A  valley 
stretching  from  Palestine  through  the  Red  Sea  southward 
nearly  to  Lake  Nyassa. 

2.  The  Western  Rift  Valley  containing  lakes  Nyassa, 
Tanganyika  and  others. 

Why  should  we  expect  to  find  the  Congo  Basin  and  ad- 
joining coast  lowlands  inhabited  by  the  lowest  and 
most  degraded  of  the  native  negro  population? 
1.  The    coast    lowlands    are    low,    marshy    and    very 

unhealthful. 


AFRICA  1 93 

2.  The  dense  forests  and  fevers  of  the  Congo  Basin  are 
unfavorable  to  human  beings. 

What  else  besides  climate  has  aided  in  keeping  the 
natives    of    Central    Africa    in    ignorance    and 
superstition? 
i.  The  difficulty  of  crossing  the  Sahara  Desert  before 
the  intioduction  of  the  camel  by  the  Arabs. 

2.  The  lack  of  any  communication  by  sea. 
By  what   routes    did    light   first    penetrate    Central 
Africa? 
i .  The  valley  of  the  Nile. 

2.  The  route  across  the  Red  Sea  to  Abyssinia  used  by 
the  Arab  traders. 

What  are  the  reasons  that  it  has  been  difficult  even 
for  Arab  traders  to  penetrate  the  heart  of  Africa? 
i .  The  coast  has  few  good  harbors. 

2.  The  coast  lowlands  are  marshy,  hot  and  unheal thful. 

3.  The  rivers  are  broken  by  many  rapids  and  waterfalls. 

4.  During  the  dry  season  water  is  scarce  upon  the  grass 
lands  or  steppes:  during  the  wet  season  the  rivers  overflow 
the  adjoining  lowlands. 

5.  Pack  animals  are  seldom  used  because  of  diseases 
and  poisonous  insects. 

6.  Goods  are  usually  carried  upon  the  backs  of  the 
natives. 

What   better   means    of    transport    are    now    being 
introduced? 

1.  Railroads  are  being  built  from  the  coast  into  the 
interior. 

2.  Steamers  have  been  placed  upon  the  lakes  and  rivers 
and  railroads  built  around  some  of  the  waterfalls. 

3.  A  continuous  boat  and  railroad  route  has  now  been 

opened  from  the  mouth  of  the  Congo  River  across  the 

heart  of  Africa  to  the  eastern  coast. 
13 


194  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

4.  The  Cape  to  Cairo  Railroad  is  in  process  of  building. 
What  can  be  said  as  to  the  importance  of  political 
boundaries  before  the  coming  of  Europeans? 

1.  The  most  civilized  countries — those  bordering  upon 
the  Mediterranean  have  indefinite  boundaries  especially 
on  the  side  toward  the  Sahara. 

2.  The  different  groups  of  the  black  races  occupied  areas 
without  definite  boundaries,  each  claiming  what  it  was 
able  to  hold  in  war. 

What  first  directed  the  attention  of  modern  Europe  to 
Africa? 

1.  South  Africa,  before  the  digging  of  the  Suez  Canal, 
was  a  half-way  station  on  the  route  to  India.  The  Dutch 
established  a  colony  there,  which  was  later  taken  over  by 
the  English. 

2.  The  North  African  States,  inhabited  by  the  descend- 
ants of  ancient  empires,  being  poorly  governed  and  in 
constant  turmoil,  European  nations  established  protec- 
torates over  them. 

3.  The  Portuguese  sought  slaves  for  their  colonies. 
Why  is  it  that  the  natives  of  Africa,  with  the  exception 

of  the  Abyssinians,  have  not  preserved  their 
independence  as  have  most  of  the  natives  of 
Asia,  but  have  passed  under  the  rule  of  foreign 
nations? 

1.  The  natives  range  from  the  lowest  savages  in  the 
tropical  parts  to  the  civilized  races  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean. They  are  not  sufficiently  organized  to  offer 
serious  resistance. 

2.  The  European  nations  sought  markets  for  their 
manufactured  products  among  these  peoples. 

3.  Each  of  the  European  nations  wished  to  control  as 
much  as  possible  of  the  natural  resources  of  undeveloped 
Africa. 


AFRICA      .  195 

4.  Some  nations  sought  lands  for  colonizing  their  sur- 
plus population  and  thereby  adding  to  their  power. 
What  is  the  present  result  of  the  efforts  of  Europeans 
to  partition  Africa? 

1.  The  French  have  acquired  the  largest  area.  It  em- 
braces Algeria,  Tunis,  Morocco,  Madagascar,  the  Western 
Sahara  and  Sudan,  reaching  in  places  to  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea. 

2.  The  English  control  the  next  largest  area.  It  in- 
cludes Egypt,  a  part  of  East  Africa.  The  Union  of  South 
Africa  which  is  expanding  far  into  the  interior. 

3.  The  Belgians  have  a  protectorate  over  greater  part 
of  the  Congo  Basin. 

4.  The  Portuguese  obtained  Mozambique — a  region 
lying  opposite  the  island  of  Madagascar. 

5.  The  former  German  possessions  of  East  Africa, 
Southwest  Africa,  Kamerun  and  Togo  Land  will  remain 
under  control  of  the  League  of  Nations. 

What  can  we  say  as  to  the  boundary  lines  since  the 

partitioning    of    Africa     among    the     European 

nations? 
What  should  we  expect  would  be  the  chief  industries 

in  a  continent  inhabited  until  recently  by  a  people 

in  a  backward  condition? 

1.  The  Hottentots  and  Bushmen  in  Southwest  Africa 
depend  entirely  upon  hunting  for  their  living. 

2.  The  natives  of  the  Congo  Forest  and  the  steppe  lands 
live  partly  by  hunting  and  partly  by  cultivating  the  soil 
in  a  rude  manner. 

3.  The  mixed  races  of  the  dry  steppes  and  desert  bor- 
ders make  their  living  partly  from  their  herds  and  partly 
from  the  soil. 

4.  Those  living  in  the  Nile  Valley  and  in  the  oases  make 
their  living  entirely  by  agriculture. 


196  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

5.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Atlas  region  depend  upon 
both  agriculture  and  upon  the  products  of  their  herds. 
Are  we  right  in  thinking  of  Africa  before  the  entrance 

of  Europeans  as  a  continent  inhabited  entirely  by 

people  of  the  black  race? 

1.  Different  Semitic  peoples,  including  Jews  and  Arabs, 
form  a  large  part  of  the  population  of  North  Africa  and 
Abyssinia. 

2.  The  Hamites  (the  original  or  native  white  race  of 
Africa)  include  Berbers  of  the  Atlas  region,  Tuaregs  of 
the  Sahara,  Fellahin  of  Egypt,  Somalis,  etc. 

3  The  Sudan  region  is  known  as  "The  Land  of  the 
Blacks." 

4.  Central  and  much  of  South  Africa  is  inhabited  by 
the  Bantu,  a  negro  race  lighter  colored  than  that  of  the 
Sudan. 

5.  The  Bushmen  and  Hottentots  are  found  in  Southwest 
Africa. 

Because  of  the  condition  of  the  continent  early 
African  trade  was  confined  to  a  very  few  com- 
modities. 

1.  The  Arabs  were  the  chief  traders,  penetrating  the 
heart  of  the  continent  from  across  the  Sahara  Desert  and 
the  Red  Sea,  and  seeking  slaves  and  ivory. 

2.  The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  sent  expeditions  into 
the  interior  from  the  coasts  seeking  particularly  slaves  for 
their  plantations  in  the  New  World. 

How  can  we  account  for  the  fact  that  the  part  of  the 
continent   which    contains    the    most   backward 
peoples    contains    the    largest   variety    of    great 
animals? 
1.  The  Sudan  grass  lands  afford  good  pasturage  and  are 
inhabited  by  the   elephant,    giraffe,  buffalo,  zebra,   rhi- 
noceros, antelope,  etc. 


AFRICA  197 

2.  Because  of  the  abundance  of  food  afforded  by  the 
herbivorous  animals  there  are  many  great  carnivores  such 
as  the  lion,  leopard,  panther,  hyena,  etc. 

3.  The  marshes  and  sluggish  streams  afford  a  home  for 
the  hippopotamus  and  crocodile. 

4.  The  dense  forests  afford  shelter  for  the  great  apes — 
chimpanzee,  gorilla  and  babboon. 

AFRICA   ACCORDING    TO    ITS  NATURAL 
REGIONS 

Why  is  it  best,  taking  up  Africa  now  in  detail,  to  study 
it  by  natural  regions  rather  than  by  countries? 

1.  The  boundaries  of  the  different  countries  and 
possessions  are  in  many  cases  still  indefinite. 

2.  The  study  of  Africa  by  natural  regions  is  the  easiest 
way  in  which  to  get  an  understanding  of  the  conditions 
which  govern  the  character  and  distribution  of  the 
different  peoples  as  well  as  the  animals  and  plants. 

THE  ATLAS  OR  MEDITERRANEAN  REGION 

THE  NORTHERN  MOUNTAIN  BORDER  RISING 
LIKE  AN  ISLAND  BETWEEN  THE  PARCHED 
SAHARA  AND  THE  BLUE  MEDITERRANEAN 
WHICH  FROM  ITS  CLIMATE  AND  PRODUC- 
TIONS SEEMS  TO  BELONG  TO  SOUTHERN 
EUROPE  RATHER  THAN  TO  AFRICA:— A 
REGION  WHICH  SO  COMPLETELY  LOST 
ITS  ANCIENT  CIVILIZATION  THAT  IT  BE- 
CAME FOR  HUNDREDS  OF  YEARS  A  NEST 
OF  PIRATES  BUT  IS  NOW,  UNDER  THE 
CONTROL  OF  FRANCE,  GAINING  A  NEW 
CIVILIZATION. 


198  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

What  is  the  position  of  the  Atlas  Mountain  region? 

With  what  mountains  of  Europe  do  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains appear  to  be  connected? 

How  can  we  account  for  the  fact  that  while  all  the  rest 
of  North  Africa  is  naturally  a  desert  the  Atlas 
region  is  well  watered? 

1.  The  Atlas  region  is  far  enough  north  so  that  it  is 
reached  by  the  same  winter  rains  as  the  peninsulas  of 
Southern  Europe. 

2.  The  Atlas  Mountains  are  high,  reaching  from 
6000  feet  in  the  east  to  15,000  in  the  Great  Atlas  of 
Morocco. 

How  do  the  position  and  nature  of  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains affect  the  people  who  live  in  them  and  to 
the  south  of  them? 

1.  The  mountains  extend  parallel  to  the  coast  interfer- 
ing with  travel  toward  the  interior. 

2.  The  mountains  cut  off  the  rains  making  the  Sahara 
more  desert  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 

3.  The  Northern  Atlas  rises  close  to  the  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean  making  the  rainy  slope  narrow. 

4.  Between  the  Coast  Atlas  and  the  Great  Atlas  there 
are  broad  valleys  with  shallow  lakes  and  moderate 
rainfall. 

What  products  can  we  expect  of  this  Mediterranean 
region? 

1 .  The  valleys  and  lower  slopes  produce  great  quantities 
of  semi-tropic  fruits  and  all  the  common  vegetables. 

2.  The  interior  plain-like  valleys  contain  great  fields 
of  wheat,  barley  and  millet. 

3.  The  drier  steppes  and  mountain  slopes  are  noted  for 
their  sheep  and  goats. 

How  can  we  account  for  the  fact  that  the  people  of 
this  region  are  a  mixture  of  many  races? 


AFRICA  199 

i.  The  original  people  were  the  Berbers  who  still  live  in 
picturesque  villages  upon  the  mountain  slopes. 

2.  The  ancient  Phoenicians,  Greeks  and  Romans  made 
settlements  upon  the  coast 

3.  The  Arabs  conquered  the  region  in  the  7th  century. 

4.  The  Moors  and  many  of  the  Jews  expelled  from 
Spain  settled  in  the  Atlas  region. 

5    The  Turks  conquered  the  region  in  the  15th  century. 
6.  The  caravan  trade  with  the  heart  of  Africa  to  the 
south  of  the  Sahara  brought  many  negroes. 
Why  are  the  countries  of  the  North  African  Coast 

known  as  "The  Barbary  States?" 
Are  all  of  the  Barbary  States  included  in  the  Atlas 
region? 

1.  Morocco,  Algeria  and  Tunis  lie  in  the  Atlas  region. 

2.  Tripoli  and  Barka  lie  to  the  eastward  where  the 
Sahara  Desert  reaches  the  coast. 

What  do  we  mean  by  the  "Moors"  and  what  had  they 
to  do  with  the  Barbary  pirates? 

1.  The  Moors  are  a  mixture  of  Berber  and  Arab.  They 
form  a  line  appearing  race  but  have  been  spoiled  by  city 
life. 

2.  Some  of  the  Moors  expelled  from  Spain  became 
pirates  and  carried  on  their  work  for  several  hundred 
years  until  an  American  fleet  subdued  them. 

Why   are    Morocco   and   Tripoli   at    present    so   far 
behind  Algeria  and  Tunis? 

1.  Tripoli,  recently  taken  from  Turkey  by  Italy,  is 
largely  a  desert. 

2.  Morocco  although  naturally  rich  has  until  its  recent 
acquisition  by  France  been  almost  without  a  government. 
What  can  we  say  of  the  methods  of  agriculture  and  the 

productions  of  the  Atlas  region  compared  with 
those  of  Southern  Europe? 


200  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHIES 

i.  The  productions  of  the  two  regions  are  almost  the 
same. 

2.  Irrigation  is  necessary  in  both  regions. 

3.  The  high  mountains  possess  similar  forests  of  cork 
oak,  oak,  cedar,  pine,  etc. 

Why  is  Algeria  called  "The  Winter  Garden  of 
France?" 

1.  The  coast  region  forms  a  delightful  winter  resort 
much  like  Southern  California. 

2.  Large  quantities  of  winter  fruits  and  vegetables  are 
shipped  to  France. 

What  can  we  say  as  to  the  outlook  for  the  future  pros- 
perity of  the  Atlas  region  under  the  control  of 
France? 

THE  MEDITERRANEAN  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA 

THE  SOUTHWEST  COAST  OF  CAPE  COLONY  :- 
A  SMALL  REGION  HAVING  ALL  THE  CHAR- 
ACTERISTICS OF  THE  TRUE  MEDITER- 
RANEAN BUT  SITUATED  AT  THE  EXTREME 
OPPOSITE  END  OF  THE  CONTINENT. 

How  does  the  latitude  of  the  extreme  southern  point 
of  Africa  compare  with  that  of  the  Atlas  region? 

Why  is  the  South  African  Mediterranean  of  little 
extent? 

1.  South  Africa  ends  in  a  point  while  North   Africa  is 
broad. 

2.  The  mountain  scarpment  of  the  South  African  High- 
land rises  close  to  the  coast. 

What  early  made  South  Africa,  though  far  removed 
from  civilized  settlements,  become  of  great 
importance? 


AFRICA  20 1 

What  three   different  peoples  have  had  control  of 

Cape  Town? 
What    are   the    commercial    disadvantages    of  this 

region  as  a  source  of  semi-tropic  fruits? 

1.  The  distance  to  European  markets  is  great. 

2.  Natal,  lying  to  the  east  of  Cape  Colony,  has  a  moist 
warm  climate  and  can  supply  semi-tropic  fruits  for  the 
inhabitants  of  the  interior  tableland  easier  than  can  the 
Mediterranean  border  of  which  we  are  speaking. 

TOPICS  FOR  ORAL  RECITATION  OR  WRITTEN 
REPORTS 

How  the  situation  of  the  Atlas  region  favored  the 
development  of  its  ancient  civilization. 

The  climate  of  the  Atlas  region  compared  with  that  of 
Southern  Europe. 

The  disadvantages  of  Tripoli  as  compared  with  Tunis. 

The  advantages  of  Algiers  as  a  winter  resort. 

Why  ancient  Carthage  became  so  important  a  city. 

Modern  Tunis. 

The  Barbary  pirates. 

The  Berbers. 

The  city  of  Fez  in  Morocco. 

The  market  advantages  of  the  North  African  Coast. 

The  story  of  the  Moors. 

How  the  North  African  Coast  resembles  California. 

The  advantages  of  French  control  of  the  Barbary  States. 

The  story  of  Cape  Colony. 

THE  SAHARA  DESERT 

THE  SAHARA :  THE  GREATEST  AND  MOST 
FORBIDDING  OF  THE  WORLD'S  DESERTS 
WHOSE  SCORCHING  SUN  AND  LIMITLESS 
EXPANSE  OF  SAND  AND  ROCK  HAVE  AIDED 


202  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

IN  MAKING  AFRICA  "THE  DARK  CONTI- 
NENT" :-  A  REGION  WHICH  IN  SPITE  OF 
ITS  DREADED  CHARACTER  CONTAINS 
OASES  OF  WONDERFUL  RICHNESS  AS  WELL 
AS  THE  FAMED  NILE  VALLEY  TO  WHICH 
CIVILIZATION  OWES  ITS  BEGINNING. 

THE   SAHARA   REGION   AS   A   WHOLE 

In  how  far  can  we  consider  the  Sahara  responsible 
for  the  backward  character  of  the  negroes  of 
Central  Africa? 

i.  If  Central  Africa  had  been  easily  reached  by  land  the 
more  civilized  peoples  would  long  ago  have  penetrated  the 
region. 

2.  It  was  not  until  after  the  discovery  of  America  that 
navigators  sailed  along  the  coasts  of  Central  Africa. 

3.  The  Sahara  stretches  entirely  across  North  Africa 
being  800  to  1400  miles  wide. 

4.  The  Sahara  barrier  is  more  difficult  to  cross  than 
mountains  or  seas. 

Is  the  whole  of  the  desert  commonly  known  as  the 
"Sahara?" 

1.  The  portion  lying  west  of  the  lower  Nile  Valley  is 
known  as  the  Libyan  Desert. 

2.  The  part  between  the  Nile  Valley  and  the  Red  Sea 
is  known  as  the  Nubian  Desert. 

Does  the  desert  region  we  are  studying  stop  at  the 

Red  Sea? 
Are  we  right  in  thinking  of  the  whole  Sahara  as  a  level 

expanse    of    sand    and    rock    without    water    or 

vegetation? 
1.  The  Central  Sahara  possesses  mountains  which  rise 
to  an  elevation  of  8000  feet  and  receive  sufficient  rain  to 
support  scanty  vegetation. 


AFRICA  203 

2.  Enough  rain  falls  in  the  western  part  to  keep  alive 
such  plants  as  the  gum  acacia. 

3.  TheLibyan  Desert  is  covered  with  drifting  sand  dunes. 

4.  The  Nile  Valley  forms  a  ribbon  of  green  from  north 
to  south  across  the  desert. 

5.  Springs  give  rise  to  oases  some  of  which  are  miles 
in  extent. 

How  can  we  account  for  springs  in  a  region  where 
there  is  so  little  rain? 

1.  The  rains  that  fall  upon  the  mountains  sink  in  the 
sands  and  some  of  the  water  comes  to  the  surface  upon 
the  lower  slopes  as  springs. 

2.  Artesian  wells  afford  water  in  some  of  the  lower 
basins  of  the  desert. 

What  is  the  appearance  of  an  oasis? 

1.  An  oasis  differs  only  from  the  desert  around  it  in 
having  water. 

2.  Seen  from  a  distance  an  oasis  appears  as  a  dense 
forest  of  date  palms. 

How  is  it  possible  to  carry  on  travel  across  the  Sahara 
Desert? 

1.  The  camel  makes  possible  desert  trade  and  travel. 

2.  In  parts  of  the  desert  the  oases  are  near  enough 
together  to  enable  the  camel,  and  even  horses  to  make  the 
journey  between  them. 

How  can  the  inhabitants  dispose  of  the  products  of 
so  many  date  palms? 

1.  Dates  form  the  chief  food.  Without  the  date  palms 
the  oases  would  scarcely  be  habitable. 

2.  Large  quantities  are  exported,  the  Sahara  date  being 
sweeter  than  the  Arabian.  The  Sahara  date  is  grown 
commercially  in  Southern  California. 

What  other  food  than  dates  have  the  people  of  the 
desert? 


204  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

i.  Millet,  wheat,  beans,  fruits  and  small  vegetables  are 
also  grown. 

2.  Camels'  milk  and  curds  form  much  of  the  food  of  the 
nomadic  peoples. 

Why  have  the  routes  of  trade  and  travel  across  the 
Sahara  been  chiefly  from  north  to  south? 

i.  The  market  for  the  products  of  the  Sudan  and  the 
oases  is  found  along  the  Mediterranean. 

2.  The  Mediterranean  countries  are  the  source  of  the 
various  goods  sought  by  the  natives. 
What  are  the  chief  caravan  routes  across  the  Sahara? 

i.  The  Nile  Valley  offers  a  route  to  East  Central 
Africa. 

2.  Routes  lead  from  Lake  Chad  and  Timbuktu  to  Tunis 
and  Tripoli. 

3.  From  Timbuktu  routes  lead  to  Algiers  and  Morocco. 
What  is  the  nature  of  the  caravan  and  the  length  of 

time  required  for  the  journey? 
What  products  has  uncivilized  Central  Africa  to  export? 

1.  Large  numbers  of  black  slaves  were  once  wanted  in 
the  Turkish  Empire  and  America. 

2.  Gums,  ebony,  ivory,  coconut  and  leather  are 
produced. 

What  effect  is  the  coming  of  Europeans  having  upon 
the  caravan  trade  across  the  Sahara? 

1.  The  northern  end  of  the  Cape  to  Cairo  railroad  has 
been  built  as  far  south  as  Khartum  in  the  Sudan. 

2.  Many  exports  from  the  Upper  Niger  Valley  now  go 
by  railroad  to  ports  upon  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  instead  of 
crossing  the  Sahara  by  caravan. 

3.  The  French  are  building  a  railroad  from  Algiers 
across  the  desert  to  Timbuktu. 

Is  it  likely  the  Sahara  Desert  will  ever  become  more 
useful  to  men? 


AFRICA  205 

i.  About  one  part  in  forty  of  the  surface  is  now  culti- 
vated.    Artesian  wells  may  enlarge  this  somewhat. 

2  Many  of  the  oases  as  well  as  the  Nile  Valley  have  a 
delightful  winter  climate  and  are  resorted  to  by  those 
wishing  to  escape  the  cold  northern  winters. 

TOPICS  FOR  ORAL  RECITATION  OR  WRITTEN 
REPORTS 

A  Sahara  oasis. 

The  Tuareg  people  of  the  Central  Sahaia. 
A  caravan  journey  from  Timbuktu  to  Tripoli. 
A  sand  storm  in  the  Sahara. 
A  village  in  an  oasis. 
The  date  palms  and  their  fruit. 
The  food  of  the  desert  people. 
The  Libyan  Desert. 
The  Nubian  Desert. 

The  different  caravan  routes  across  the  Sahara. 
Why  the  Sahara  though  very  hot  is  more  healthful  than 
the  Congo  Forest. 

The  causes  for  the  existence  of  the  Sahara  Desert. 
The  ways  in  which  the  Sahara  can  be  made  useful  to  men. 

EGYPT:— THE  GIFT  OF  THE  NILE  AND  THE 
CRADLE  OF  CIVILIZATION :— A  NARROW 
RIBBON  OF  LAND  WINDING  NORTHWARD 
ACROSS  THE  SAHARA,  SO  RICH,  SO  WELL 
WATERED  AND  SO  PROTECTED  BY  THE 
DESERT  THAT  ITS  FORTUNATE  INHABI- 
TANTS CAME  TO  OCCUPY  THE  FOREMOST 
PLACE  AMONG  THE  ANCIENTS  AND  LEFT 
WONDERFUL  MONUMENTS  OF  THEIR  CIV- 
ILIZATION MANY  OF  WHICH  REMAIN  TO 
THE  PRESENT  DAY. 


206  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHIES 

What  do  we  mean  by  the  term  "Egypt?" 

i.  The  country  of  Egypt  includes  a  large  area  in  north- 
east Africa  but  its  boundaries  are  rather  uncertain  in 
places. 

2.  The  Land  of  Egypt  includes  the  Nile  delta  and  the 
lower  700  miles  of  its  valley. 
Why  is  Egypt  called  the  "Gift  of  the  Nile?" 

1.  The  Valley  of  the  Nile  lies  between  the  Libyan  and 
Nubian  Deserts. 

2.  If  it  were  not  for  the  Nile  there  would  be  one  con- 
tinuous desert. 

3.  The  Nile  moistens  and  fertilized  the  soil  of  its  valley 
during  each  yearly  overflow. 

What  do  we  mean  by  Upper  Egypt  and  Lower  Egypt? 

1.  Lower  Egypt  is  the  name  given  to  the  delta  which 
spreads  out  below  the  city  of  Cairo. 

2.  Upper  Egypt  is  the  name  given  to  the  Nile  Valley  as 
far  as  Assuan,  the  location  of  the  first  cataract. 

Does  the  first  cataract  mark  the  limits  of  usefulness  of 
the  Nile? 

1 .  Above  Upper  Egypt  the  Nile  valley  is  usually  narrow 
and  supports  few  people. 

2.  As  a  waterway  the  Nile  is  valuable  through  the  Sudan 
and  nearly  to  its  source  although  there  are  a  number  of 
"cataracts." 

Why  is  it  that  Lower  Egypt  contains  the  greater  popu- 
lation? 

1.  Below  Cairo  the  Nile  branches,  spreading  out  over 
a  great  area  shaped  like  the  Greek  letter  delta,  hence  the 
name. 

2.  The  delta  lands  are  low,  easily  flooded  and  of  so 
great  an  extent  that  they  naturally  form  the  more  im- 
portant part  of  Egypt. 


AFRICA  207 

In  what  other  respect  beside  that  of  irrigating  and 
enriching  the  soil  is  the  Nile  of  great  importance 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley? 

1.  The  Nile  offers  an  unbroken  highway  the  whole 
length  of  Egypt. 

2.  The  north  winds  of  the  winter  season  blow  the  laden 
boats  up  the  river  while  it  is  easy  to  float  down  with  the 
current. 

In  what  respect  was  it  a  disadvantage  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians  that  the  Nile  afforded  so  good  a 
highway? 

1.  The  valley  opened  a  passage  for  the  uncivilized 
peoples  of  the  south  to  attack  them. 

2.  The  Nile  opening  to  the  Mediterranean  exposed  the 
country  to  attack  from  the  sea. 

3.  The  delta  could  be  reached  from  Asia  by  crossing 
the  Desert  of  Sinai. 

How  is  it  that  the  Nile  made  possible  the  wonderful 
development  of  ancient  Egypt? 

1.  The  main  river  rises  far  to  the  southward  in  the  region 
of  tropical  rains. 

2.  The  branch  known  as  the  Blue  Nile  rises  in  the  Abys- 
sinian Highlands  where  heavy  rains  of  the  southeast  mon- 
soon fall  from  July  to  September. 

3.  The  lower  Nile  river  begins  to  rise  in  June,  reaching 
its  highest  in  November. 

4.  The  muddy  Hood  waters  spread  over  the  valley  and 
delta  depositing  rich  silt  which  fertilizes  the  soil. 

5.  The  waters  subsiding  in  early  winter  the  crops  are 
put  in  and  grow  rapidly  with  the  returning  heat  of 
spring. 

How  is  it  that  the  Nile  floods  are  more  favorable  to 
agriculture  than  those  of  other  rivers  that  flow 
through  deserts? 


208  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHIES 

i .  The  floods  of  such  rivers  as  the  Tigris-Euphrates  and 
Colorado  are  due  to  melting  snows  and  come  late  for 
spring  planting  unless  the  water  is  held  back  in  reservoirs. 

2.  The  Nile  floods  come  much  earlier  and  at  just  the 
right  time  to  enable  the  farmers  to  prepare  the  lands  for 
the  spring  crops. 

3.  The  Nile  usually  floods  its  valley  and  delta  without 
assistance  from  the  farmers. 

What  disadvantages  did  the  ancient  Egyptian  farmers 
labor  under? 

1.  Sometimes  the  Nile  floods  did  not  rise  high  enough 
to  overflow  the  valley  and  then  famine  resulted. 

2.  Only  one  crop  could  be  raised  each  year. 

How  has  the  English  control  of  Egypt  made  farming 
more  profitable  and  crops  certain? 

1 .  Reservoirs  have  been  built  to  hold  the  surplus  water 
in  reserve  for  dry  years. 

2.  Three  crops  can  now  be  raised  each  year  with  the 
aid  of  artificial  irrigation. 

What  other  regions  have  we  studied  that  compare 
with  the  Nile  Valley  as  regards  security,  fertility 
and  their  ancient  civilizations? 

1 .  The  valley  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  Rivers  known  as 
Mesopotamia. 

2.  The  plains  of  China  forming  the  delta  of  the  Hwang 
Ho  River. 

3.  The  river  oases  in  the  deserts  of  Turkestan. 

4.  The  plains  of  India. 

How  did  their  isolation  in  the  desert  aid  the  ancient 
Egyptians? 

1.  They  lived  almost  free  from  danger  of  attack  by 
enemies. 

2.  Their  freedom  from  outside  disturbances  gave  op- 
portunity for  the  development  of  industries  and  civilization. 


AFRICA  209 

What  should  we  expect  as  regards  the  products  of  the 
fertile  land  of  Egypt? 

1.  Wheat  once  made  Egypt  the  grainery  of  the  sur- 
rounding nations.  Wheat  is  still  raised  together  with 
laige  quantities  of  barley,  millet  and  beans. 

2.  Cotton,  sugar-cane,  rice  and  tobacco  have  been  intro- 
duced in  recent  years. 

3.  Dates,  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  grapes,  melons  and  vege- 
tables are  raised  in  large  quantities. 

How  did  Egypt  finally  lose  its  ancient  culture  but  not 
its  productiveness  as  did  Mesopotamia? 

1  Warlike  nations  arose  capable  of  crossing  the 
barriers  and  overrunning  the  country.  Among  these 
were  the  Assyrians,  Greeks,  Romans  and  Moham- 
medans. 

2.  Fortunately   the   Nile   irrigated  its   valley  without 
help  so  that  the  Egyptian  farmers  continued  to  sow  and 
reap  although  their  nation  was  destroyed. 
What  causes  have  determined  the  position  of  the  chief 
cities? 

1.  Alexandria,  an  ancient  city,  is  the  port  of  entry  upon 
the  delta. 

2.  Cairo  the  chief  city  is  on  the  Nile  and  forms  the 
gateway  to  Upper  Egypt. 

3.  Port  Said  owes  its  importance  to  the  Suez  Canal. 
Why  may  we  look  forward  to  a  great  future  for  the  rich 

land  of  Egypt? 

1.  The  soil  of  Egypt  is  still  as  fertile  as  it  was  thousands 
of  years  ago. 

2.  Modern  Egypt  has  the  additional  advantage  of  com- 
plete protection  and  a  more  certain  and  abundant  water 
supply. 

3.  Modern  methods  of  agriculture  will  farther  aid  the 
productiveness  of  the  soil. 

14 


2IO  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

TOPICS  FOR  ORAL  RECITATION  OR  WRITTEN 
REPORTS 

Why  the  earliest  civilization  of  which  we  have  any 
record  grew  up  in  Egypt. 

The  monuments  left  by  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

How  many  of  the  ancient  buildings  came  to  be  buried 
for  thousands  of  years. 

The  river  Nile  and  its  floods. 

Comparison  of  the  Nile  with  the  Tigris-Euphrates 
Rivers. 

The  causes  of  famines  in  Egypt. 

The  pyramids. 

The  advantages  of  reservoirs  to  the  Egyptian  farmers. 

The  present  Egyptians-and  their  religions. 

Comparison  of  the  Nile  Delta  with  other  great  deltas. 

The  river  Nile  as  a  highway. 

The  Nile  Valley  as  a  highway. 

The  story  of  the  city  of  Alexandria. 

The  sights  of  the  city  of  Cairo. 

The  benefits  to  Egypt  of  the  present  English  control. 

THE  SUDAN 

THE  LAND  OF  THE  BLACKS: -THAT  BROAD 
BELT  OF  COUNTRY  STRETCHING  ACROSS 
AFRICA  IN  AN  EAST  AND  WEST  DIRECTION 
BETWEEN  THE  SAHARA  DESERT  AND  THE 
CONGO  FOREST:— A  LAND  INHABITED 
BY  THE  DARKEST  OF  THE  NEGRO  RACES 
AND  POSSESSING,  BECAUSE  OF  ITS  MOD- 
ERATE RAINFALL,  EXTENSIVE  GRASS 
LANDS  OR  STEPPES  UPON  WHICH  LIVE 
A  WONDERFUL  VARIETY  OF  GREAT 
ANIMALS. 


AFRICA  2  1 1 

What  do  we  understand  by  the  Sudan  region  of 
Africa? 

i.  A  rolling  tableland  in  the  edge  of  the  tropics  with 
seasonal  rains,  that  is,  a  dry  and  a  wet  season. 

2.  The  northern  part  of  the  Sudan  is  a  true  steppe  which 
blends  into  the  Sahara  Desert. 

3.  The  central  part  is  covered  with  rank  grasses  and 
other  forage  and  dotted  with  groups  of  trees. 

4.  With  increasing  rain  toward  the  south  the  Sudan 
grass  lands  shade  into  the  Congo  Forest. 

5.  During  the  wet  season  the  Sudan  is  almost  flooded, 
during  the  dry  season  it  is  parched  and  barren. 

Does  the  region  ordinarily  known  as  the  Sudan  con- 
tain all  of  Africa  having  the  same  climate? 

1.  The  South  African  Tableland  is  a  similar  region 
similarly  situated  south  of  the  equator. 

2.  The  Lake  Tableland  of  East  Africa  is  similar  to  the 
Sudan.  It  lies  across  the  equator  and  connects  the  other 
two  tablelands. 

Should  we  not  expect  a  region  such  as  the  Sudan  filled 
with  life  to  be  well  watered? 

1.  The  Nile  flows  across  the  eastern  end  of  the 
Sudan. 

2.  Lake  Chad  occupies  a  basin  without  outlet  in  the 
heart  of  the  Sudan. 

3.  The  Senegal  River  flows  westerly  and  the  Niger, 
one  of  the  great  rivers  of  Africa,  flows  easterly  and 
southerly  into  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 

4.  Somali  Land  the  ''Horn  of  Africa"  King  upon  the 
east  coast  has  in  general  a  steppe-like  character. 

Is  there  anything  about  the  position  of  Somali  Land 
which  explains  the  fact  that  its  inhabitants  are 
not  negroes? 

How  can  we  explain  the  fact  that  the  negroes  of  the 


212  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHIES 

Sudan  who  are  in  most  ways  so  backward  in  their 
development  keep  herds  and  engage  in  agricul- 
ture instead  of  depending  upon  hunting? 

i.  The  influence  of  the  Arab  traders  has  penetrated 
nearly  all  parts  of  Africa. 

2.  The  negroes  of  the  Northern  Sudan  are  mixed  with 
the  Hamite  race  of  the  oases. 

3.  The  presence  of  many  kinds  of  wild  animals  has  led 
to  the  domestication  of  some  of  them. 

4.  Other  domestic  animals  have  been  introduced  from 
North  Africa. 

5.  In  much  of  the  Sudan  the  climate  is  favorable  to 
gardening  and  fruit  growing. 

What  are  the  native  foods  of  the  Negroes?     (Yams, 

bananas,  melons,  legumes,  meat.) 
How  can  we  account  for  the  great  variety  of  wild 

animals  in  the  Sudan? 

1.  The  grass-lands  between  the  Sahara  and  the  Congo 
Forest  afford  rich  forage  for  herbivorous  animals. 

2.  The  food  supplied  by  the  herbivorous  animals  led 
to  the  great  development  of  the  carnivorous  animals  that 
feed  upon  them. 

In  what  way  are  conditions  of  life  changing  in  the 
Sudan? 

1.  The  Sudan  has  been  divided  into  different  states  each 
controlled  by  one  of  the  European  nations. 

2.  Railways  are  being  built  and  rivers  made  navigable 
so  that  many  of  the  ancient  caravan  routes  are  falling  into 
disuse. 

What  is  the  Sudan  capable  of  supplying  the  outside 
world? 

1 .  The  Sudan  is  one  of  the  richest  undeveloped  regions 
of  the  world. 

2.  The   exports   of   the   past  have   been   ivory,   gums, 


AFRICA  2 1 3 

indigo,  Morocco  leather  and  some  rubber.     Palm  oil  is 
now  the  leading  article  exported. 

TOPICS  FOR  ORAL  DISCUSSION  OR  WRITTEN 
REPORTS 

The  negroes  of  the  Sudan. 

The  great  animals  of  the  grass-lands. 

The  giant  apes. 

Why  there  is  such  a  mixture  of  races  in  the  Northern 
Sudan. 

The  occupations  of  the  Sudan  Negroes. 

Lake  Chad. 

Why  the  climate  of  the  Sudan  varies  so  greatly  between 
the  north  and  the  south. 

The  different  products  of  the  Sudan. 

The  countries  of  the  Sudan. 

The  Mohammedan  influence  upon  the  people  of  the 
Sudan. 

WThy  the  Sudan  is  called  the  "Land  of  the  Blacks." 

The  city  of  Timbuktu. 

The  animals  of  the  rivers. 

The  different  seasons  of  the  Sudan. 

WThy  the  Sudan  must  some  time  become  an  important 
region. 

THE  LAKE  TABLELAND  OF  EAST  AFRICA 

THE  NATURAL  HIGHWAY  BETWEEN  NORTH 
AND  SOUTH  AFRICA  REMARKABLE  FOR 
CONTAINING  THE  LARGEST  LAKES  AND 
THE  HIGHEST  MOUNTAINS  OF  THE  CON- 
TINENT :-  A  REGION  SIMILAR  TO  THE 
SUDAN  IN  ITS  PLANT  AND  ANIMAL  LIFE 
BUT  CONTAINING  QUITE  DIFFERENT 
RACES  OF  MEN. 


214  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

What  is  the  position  and  extent  of  the  Lake  Table- 
land? 

What  characters  has  the  Tableland  which  enables  us 
to  speak  of  it  as  a  natural  highway? 

i.  The  rainfall  is  light  in  most  parts  so  that  grassy 
steppes  take  the  place  of  the  dense  forests  usually  found 
in  the  tropics. 

2.  The    tableland    contains    a    series    of    valleys    and 
large  lakes  extending  in  a  north  and  south  direction,  the 
largest  lake  being  the  source  of  the  Nile. 
How  can  we  explain  the  presence  of  the  unusual  num- 
ber of  lakes  in  this  part  of  Africa? 

i.  Two  great  rifts  along  which  the  earth  has  sunken 
traverse  the  tableland  from  north  to  south. 

2.  Waters  have  gathered  in  the  more  deeply  sunken 
portions  of  the  rifts  forming  lakes. 

How  can  we  account  for  the  lofty  mountain  peaks  ris- 
ing above  the  tableland? 

i.  Many  volcanoes,  some  of  them  active,  are  found 
near  and  are  due  to  the  rifts  or  fractures  in  the  earth. 

2.  The  extinct  volcano  of  Kenia  rises   17,000  feet: — 

Kilimanjaro    19,500    feet.     Many  smaller  volcanoes   are 

found  to  the  eastward  of  the  eastern  rift. 

Why  is  the  northern  part,  known  as  the  Abyssinian 

Highlands,     sometimes     called     "The     African 

Switzerland?" 

1.  The  Abyssinian  Highlands  or  Plateau  rises  abruptly 
above  the  level  of  the  Sudan  region  to  a  height  of  7000  to 
8000  feet. 

2.  From  the  top  of  the  1  oiling  plateau  rise  mountain 
peaks  to  12.000  and  15.000  feet. 

3.  The  plateau  is  the  source  of  the  Blue  Nile  and  other 
rivers  that  have  cut  deep  gorges  down  its  slopes. 

Why  is  the  rainfall  so  much  less  upon  the  Lake  Table- 


AFRICA  215 

land  than  upon  the  tropical  lowlands  bordering  it 
upon  both  the  east  and  west? 

1.  Tropical  rains  are  the  result  of  currents  of  air  rising 
above  the  heated  earth. 

2.  The  tableland  is  so  much  cooler  than  either  the  Congo 
Basin  or  the  coast  lowlands  to  the  east  that  the  upward 
air  currents  are  not  as  strong  and  the  rainfall  is  less. 
How  does  Africa  compare  with    South  America   as 

regard  wet  tropical  lowlands  and  dry  highlands? 
How  has  the  rainfall  affected  the  distribution  of  the 
vegetation  upon  the  Lake  Tableland? 

1.  The  drier  parts  form  grassy  steppes. 

2.  Regions  with  more  rain  are  "covered  with  thorny 
bushes. 

3.  In  the  lower  rift  valleys  about  the  lakes  the  rain  is 
still  heavier  and  there  are  dense  tropical  forests. 

What  important  influence   does  Lake  Victoria  have 

upon  the  flow  of  the  Nile? 
What  interesting  zones  of  climate  and  vegetation  do 

we   find   upon   the   slopes   of   all   these   tropical 

highlands? 

1.  Tropical  forests  extend  up  to  5000  feet. 

2.  The  sub-tropical  belt  reaches  from  5000  feet  to  9000 
feet.     What  must  be  the  products? 

3.  The  cool  lands  above  9000  feet  are  adapted  to 
grazing  and  raising  cereals. 

4.  About  the  bases  of  Kenia  and  Kilimanjaro  there  is  a 
belt  better  watered  than  the  grassy  steppes  and  well 
adapted  to  agriculture. 

In  what  respects  are  the  natives  of  the  Lake  Tableland 
different  from  those  of  the  Sudan? 
1.   The   Abyssinian    Highland    is  inhabited   by  a   semi- 
Christian  white  race  belonging  to  the  same  group  (Hamite) 
as  the  Berbers. 


2l6  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHIES 

2.  The  Negros  of  the  cential  and  southern  part  of  the 
tableland  belong  to  the  Bantu  race  which  was  originally 
spread  over  the  most  of  South  Africa. 
Upon  what  do  the  people  of  the  tableland  depend  for  a 
living? 

i.  The  Abyssinians  are  farmers  and  herdsmen. 

2.  The  more  advanced  of  the  Negroes  possess  herds  and 
carry  on  farming  where  there  is  sufficient  rain. 

3.  Where  the  rainfall  is  light  the  Negroes  depend  chiefly 
upon  their  herds  and  upon  hunting. 

What  is  the  nature  of  the  farming  carried  on  by  the 
Negroes? 

1.  The  land  cultivated  by  the  Negroes  is  prepared  by 
hand  and  is  confined  to  small  patches  of  land  near  their 
villages. 

2.  The  products  of  the  gardens  are  chiefly  melons, 
squashes,  yams  and  millet. 

Should  not  the  products  of  the  Lake  Tableland  be  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  Sudan? 

1.  Slaves  once  formed  the  chief  commodity  exported, 
the  caravan  routes  reaching  the  coast  at  Zanzibar. 

2.  The  products  exported  fiom  the  interior  are  gums, 
ivory,  hides  and  rubber,  palm  oil,  copra  and  cloves  from 
the  lower  coastal  slopes. 

What  are  the  difficulties  connected  with  carrying  on 
trade  upon  the  Lake  Tableland? 

1 .  Except  for  the  lakes  and  the  Nile  the  waterways  are 
not  adapted  to  navigation. 

2.  The  rinderpest  and  the  tsetse  fly  make  the  use  of 
animals  almost  impossible. 

3.  Goods  are  usually  transported  on  the  backs  of 
Negroes. 


AFRICA  217 

TOPICS  FOR  ORAL  RECITATION  OR  WRITTEN 
REPORTS 

The  climate  of  the  Lake  Tableland. 

The  Great  Lakes. 

The  Rift  valleys. 

How  the  animals  compare  with  those  of  the  Sudan. 

The  people  of  Abyssinia. 

The  character  of  the  Abyssinian  Highlands. 

The  people  of  Somaliland. 

The  volcanoes  of  Kenia  and  Kilimanjaro. 

The  difficulties  of  travel. 

The  slave  trade. 

A  negro  village. 

How  German  East  Africa  once  blocked  the  Cape  to 
Cairo  Railway. 

Why  the  Lake  Highland  offers  the  best  route  for  the 
Cape  to  Cairo  Railway. 

The  City  of  Zanzibar. 

The  wild  animals  of  the  Lake  Tableland. 

THE  CONGO  FOREST 

THE  CONGO  FOREST:— THAT  TROPICAL  RE- 
GION IN  THE  HEART  OF  AFRICA  PEOPLED 
ENTIRELY  BY  NEGROES :— THE  LAST  POR- 
TION OF  THE  DARK  CONTINENT  TO  BE 
EXPLORED  BECAUSE  OF  THE  DENSITY  OF 
THE  FOREST,  THE  UNHEALTHFULNESS 
OF  THE  CLIMATE  AND  THE  DIFFICULTY 
OF  TRAVEL. 

What  region  do  we  mean  when  we  speak  of  the 
"Congo  Forest?" 

1.  The  basin  of  the  Congo  River. 


2l8  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHIES 

2,  The  Upper  and  Lower  Guinea  Coasts. 
With  what  other  tropical  forests  can  we  compare  the 
Congo  Forest? 

i.  The  forest  of  the  Amazon  basin. 

2.  The  forests  of  the  Malay  Archipelago. 
To  what  is  due  the  vast  extent  of  the  Congo  Forests? 

i.  The  fact  that  the  tropical  belt  passes  through  the 
heart  of  the  continent. 

2.  The  extent  of  the  lowlands  along  the  Upper  Guinea 
coast  and  the  low  plateau-like  basin  of  the  Congo 
River. 

3.  Tropical  rains  resulting  from  the  ascending  currents 
of  hot  moist  air. 

What  would  be  the  nature  of  the  climate  of  the  Congo 
Basin  if  its  rainfall  were  dependent  upon  moisture 
brought  by  the  Ocean  winds? 

1.  Mountainous  highlands  border  the  coast  to  both 
eastward  and  westward. 

2.  The  mountains  upon  the  west  coast  rise  in  the  Kam- 
erun  district  to  a  height  of  13,000  feet. 

Why  are  the  waterways  of  the  Congo  Forest  so  much 
less  used  by  the  natives  than  are  those  of  the 
Amazon  Forest? 

1.  The  Amazon  Basin  is  low  and  the  rivers  flow  slowly 
with  few  rapids  and  falls. 

2.  The  Congo  Basin  is  a  low  plateau  and  its  streams 
are  frequently  broken  by  rapids. 

How  is  it  that  the  Congo  though  having  such  a  volume 
of  water  that  it  colors  the  sea  for  a  distance  of 
40  miles  from  the  land  was  discovered  by  land 
explorers? 

1.  The  river  as  it  approaches  the  sea  divides  into 
innumerable  channels. 

2.  2 Co  miles  of  rapids,  impassable  for  boats,  mark  the 


AFRICA  219 

descent  of  the  river  from  the  plateau-like  basin  to  the 
coastal  plain. 

3.  Livingston  discovered  the  headwaters  of  the  river. 

Stanley  later  found  the  river  and  followed  it  to  the  ocean. 

To  what  group  of  negroes  do  the  natives  of  the  Congo 

Forest  belong  and  why  are  they  less  civilized 

than  those  of  the  Sudan? 

1.  The  Negroes  of  the  Forest  belong  to  the  great  Bantu 
race. 

2    The  conditions  of  the  dense  forest  are  unfavorable. 

3.  The  Negroes  of  the  Sudan  live  in  a  more  healthful 
open  region  and  have  benefited  from  contact  with  the 
peoples  of  North  Africa 

Upon  what  do  the  Negroes  of  the  forest  depend  for 
food? 

1.  The  Negroes  are  farmers  by  nature  raising  yams, 
plantains,  pawpaws  and  pineapples. 

2.  No  herds  are  kept  except  upon  the  borders  of  the 
surrounding  grass  lands  where  there  is  forage. 

What  are  the  great  animals  that  inhabit  the  more  open 
forest  and  grass  lands?  (Elephant,  leopard,  buf- 
falo, wild  cattle,  zebra,  antelope,  hippopotamus.) 

For  what  other  animals  is  the  Congo  Region  remark- 
ably interesting? 
There  is  an  innumerable  number  of  monkeys  belonging 

to  almost  every  known  variety. 

Why  are  the  cannibal  tribes  and  Pigmies  of  Africa 
confined  to  the  forests?  (There  is  a  lack  of  ani- 
mal food  in  the  forest.) 

Why  is  the  Congo  Region  likely  to  become  of  very 
great  importance? 
1     Rubber  trees  exist  in  the  forest  in  numbers  greater 

than  in  any  other  region. 

2.  There  is  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  ebony,  teak,  and 


2  20  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHIES 

mahogany.     Oil  palms,  wild  coffee  and  cotton  grow  in 
the  more  open  parts. 

3.  Valuable  deposits  of  iron,  copper  and  other  minerals 
are  known  to  exist. 
How  is  the  Congo  Forest  governed?     Is  it  under  the 

control  of  the  natives,   or,   like   other  parts   of 

Africa  ruled  by  Europeans? 

1.  The  Congo  Free  State,  the  boundaries  of  which  coin- 
cide with  the  Congo  Basin  is  a  protectorate  of  Belgium. 

2.  The  most  of  the  smaller  states  along  the  Guinea  coast 
are  controlled  by  European  Nations. 

What  is  needed  in  order  that  the  natives  may  be  raised 
out  of  their  ignorant  and  degraded  condition? 

1.  Kind,  honest  treatment  and  education  along  indus- 
trial lines. 

2.  Improvement  in  their  moral  and  physical  condition. 

TOPICS  FOR  ORAL  DISCUSSION  AND  WRITTEN 
REPORT 

Comparison  of  the  Congo  Forest  with  the  Amazon 
Forest. 

Comparison  of  the  Congo  Basin  with  the  Amazon  Basin. 

Comparison  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Congo  Forest  with 
those  of  the  Amazon. 

The  explorations  of  Stanley  and  Livingston. 

Difficulties  of  travel  in  the  Congo  Forest. 

The  mouth  of  the  Congo  River. 

How  means  of  travel  in  the  Congo  have  been  improved. 

The  resources  of  the  Congo  Forest. 

The  countries  of  the  Guinea  Coast. 

The  origin  of  the  country  of  Liberia. 

The  Tigmies. 

The  monkeys  of  the  forest. 


AFRICA  221 

THE  SOUTH  AFRICAN  TABLELAND 

THE  SOUTH  AFRICAN  TABLELAND  :— A  REGION 
EMBRACING  NEARLY  THE  WHOLE  OF  THE 
CONTINENT  LYING  SOUTH  OF  THE  CONGO 
FOREST  AND  THE  LAKE  TABLELAND,  A 
PART  BEING  KNOWN  AS  THE  KALAHARI 
DESERT  AND  A  PART  AS  THE  VELD :  A 
REGION  MORE  ADVANCED  THAN  THE 
MOST  OF  AFRICA  BECAUSE  OF  ITS  TEM- 
PERATE CLIMATE  AND  GREAT  MINERAL 
WEALTH. 

What  small  part  of  South  Africa  already  studied  is  not 

included  in  the  tableland? 
To  what  regions  north  of  the  equator  do  parts  of  the 

tableland  correspond? 

i.  The  Kalahari  desert  corresponds  to  the  Sahara. 

2.  The  Veld  corresponds  to  the  Sudan  in  vegetation 
and  animal  life. 

How  is  it  that  the  tableland  as  a  whole  is  not  dry  and 
barren  like  the  Sahara? 

i .  The  Sahara  lies  in  the  trade  wind  belt  but  the  winds 
blow  off  the  land. 

2.  The  South  African  Tableland  lies  in  the  trade  wind 
belt,  the  winds  blowing  off  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Why  if  the  winds  blow  off  the  ocean  is  much  of  the 
tableland  very  dry? 

i.  The  highest  part  (Dasuto  Highlands  reaching  1 1  ,ooo 
feet)  lies  along  the  eastern  margin  preventing  much  of  the 
moisture  from  reaching  the  interior  veld. 

2.  The  moisture  decreases  toward  the  west  until  the 
Kalahari  Desert  is  reached. 

How  does  the  nature  of  the  tableland  make  traveling 
easier  than  in  most  other  parts  of  Africa? 


22  2  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHIES 

i.  The  surface  consists  in  large  part  of  open  rolling 
plains  with  flat-topped  peaks. 

2.  The  two  chief  streams,  Orange  River  and  Zambezi, 
have  not  cut  deeply  into  the  plateau  but  flow  in  broad 
valleys. 

How  is  it  that  the  tableland  is  so  healthful  although 
lying  in  the  edge  of  the  tropics? 

i.  The  plateau  varies   from  4000   to   6000  feet  high. 

2.  The  rainfall  is  light. 
What  native  inhabitants  were  found  here  and  still 
remain  in  large  numbers? 

1.  The  greater  part  forms  the  home  of  the  Blacks  of 
the  Bantu  race  (Kaffirs). 

2.  In  the  Kalahari  Desert  region  the  Bushmen  and 
Hottentots  live. 

What  first  led  white  people  to  occupy  the  dry  table- 
land? 

1.  The  early  Dutch  settlers  of  Cape  Town  wished  to 
live  independent  of  English  control  and  so  emigrated  into 
the  interior. 

2.  The  discovery  of  the  Kimberly  diamond  mines  now 
the  most  noted  in  the  world. 

3.  The  discovery  of  the  "Witwatersrand  gold  mines. 
How  do  the  Dutch  farmers  manage  to  make  a  living 

upon  the  dry  veld? 

1.  The  grassy  plains  are  well  suited  to  the  raising  of 
cattle  and  sheep. 

2.  Each  farmer  requires  a  great  stretch  of  land  to  sup- 
port his  herds. 

3.  In  the  moister  parts  wheat  and  corn  can  be  grown 
without  irrigation. 

Is  the  tableland  easy  to  reach  from  the  coastal  plain? 
1.  The  outer  rim  is.higher  than  the  interior  except  where 
the  rivers  flow  out. 


AFRICA  223 

2.  The  tableland  rises  very  steeply  from    the    coastal 

lowlands. 

Should  we  not  expect  to  find  a  great  variety  of  produc- 
tions between  the  coast  and  the  high  interior 
veld? 

1.  The  Mediterranean  fruits  thrive,  as  we  have  already 
learned,  in  the  region  about  Cape  Town. 

2.  Tropical  and  sub-tropical  fruits  grow  upon  the  east 
coast  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Zambezi  River. 

3.  About  Johannesburg  the  climate  favors  products  of 
the  temperate  belt. 

4.  Sheep,  goats  and  ostriches  are  the  chief  products  of 
the  seaward  slopes  of  the  tableland  because  of  the  lack  of 
water. 

What  ports  are  best  adapted  to  the  shipment  of  South 
African  products? 

1.  Cape  Town  is  the  oldest  and  most  important  port 
but  it  has  a  poor  harbor. 

2.  Delagoa  Bay  upon  the  east  coast  has  the  best  natural 
harbor  of  the  continent. 

How  can  the  drawbacks  to  life  in  South  Africa  be 
remedied? 

1.  The  lack  of  water  upon  the  veld  has  encouraged  stock 
raising  which  necessitates  the  homes  being  far  apart  and 
with  few  modern  conveniences. 

2.  The  development  of  irrigation  systems  such  as  those 
in  the  Western  United  States  is  necessary  before  the 
country  can  support  a  large  white  population  in  comfort. 
How  does  the  situation,  climate  and  character  of  the 

people  give  the  South  African  States  an  advantage 
over  most  other  countries  of  the  continent? 

1.   The  climate  is  suited  to  the  white  races. 

2    The  remote  position  tends  to  develop  independence. 

3.  The  immigrants  are  mostly  of  European  descent. 


224  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

TOPICS  FOR  ORAL  DISCUSSION  OR  WRITTEN 
REPORTS 

The  discovery  and  settlement  of  Cape  Town. 

The  story  of  the  Boers. 

Farm  life  in  the  Transvaal. 

The  Bushmen. 

The  Hottentots. 

Diamond  mining. 

Gold  mining  on  the  Rand. 

The  Kaffirs. 

Disadvantages  of  farming  on  the  veld. 

The  Zambezi  River. 

Delgoa  Bay  and  the  surrounding  country. 

THE  AFRICAN  ISLANDS 

Where  do  we  find  the  most  islands,  along  those 
continental  shores  that  are  regular  or  those  that 
are  broken? 

From  the  nature  of  the  coast  of  Africa  should  we  expect 
it  to  possess  many  islands? 
i.   Compare  coast  of  Africa  with  the  coasts  of  South 

America  and  Australia. 

2.  Judging  from  the  depth  of  the  ocean  the  Cape  Verde 
and  Canary  Islands  belong  to  Africa, 

3.  Madagascar  belongs   to  Africa  although  separated 
by  a  broad  deep  channel. 

Judging  from  its  size  and  position  ought  not  Mada- 
gascar to  be  one  of  the  most  important  islands  of 
the  world? 

1.  Madagascar  is  the  fourth  island  in  size. 

2.  The  island  lies  under  the  equator  and  is  naturally 
hot  and  moist. 


THE   NATURAL  REGION'S  OF  AUSTRALIA 


Facing  f.  «4> 


AUSTRALIA  225 

3.  The  mountains  in  the  interior  are  high  enough  to 
afford  a  climate  in  which  Europeans  can  live. 

4.  The  inhabitants  are  related  to  the  Malays.  They 
came  originally  across  the  Indian  Ocean  from  the  Asiatic 
Islands. 

5  The  island  affords  rubber  and  all  other  tropical 
products  in  addition  to  minerals. 

SECTION  2.  AUSTRALIA 

TOPIC 

AUSTRALIA :— THE  SMALLEST  AND  MOST  RE- 
MOTE OF  THE  CONTINENTS,  SOMETIMES 
CALLED  THE  "ODD  ONE"  BECAUSE  OF  ITS 
UNUSUAL  SURFACE  FEATURES,  ITS 
STRANGE  ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS,  AND 
FINALLY,  BECAUSE  OF  ITS  NATIVE 
PEOPLES  WHO  ARE  AMONG  THE  MOST 
PRIMITIVE  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE. 

MAP  STUDIES 

In  what  part  of  the  world  lies  the  continent  we  are  now 

to  study? 
What  do  we  mean  by  saying  Australia  is  situated  in  the 

water  hemisphere? 
What  large  islands  form  stepping  stones  to  Asia? 
What  is  the  distance  of  Australia  in  round  numbers 

from  the  nearest  point  of  Asia?     What  is  that 

point? 
In  what   direction   are   Australia's   nearest   civilized 

neighbors? 
What  continent  does  Australia  resemble  as  regards 

the  character  of  its  coast  line? 


226  PROGRESSIVE   GEOGRAPHIES 

What  large  island  north  and  small  one  south  are 
separated  from  Australia  by  shallow  waters? 

What  continent  does  Australia  resemble  in  the  general 
character  of  its  surface? 

Are  there  any  mountains?     If  so  where  located? 

Is  the  general  surface  of  the  continent  high  or  low? 

In  what  part  is  the  chief  lowland? 

What  bays  on  opposite  sides  of  the  continent  does  this 
lowland  connect? 

Where  is  the  only  large  river  system? 

What  should  we  expect  from  the  latitude  would  be  the 
range  in  temperature? 

What  does  the  absence  of  rivers  over  most  of  the 
surface  suggest  as  to  the  rainfall? 

Judging  from  the  latitude  what  rainfall  belts  should 
Australia  he  in? 

Judging  from  the  latitude  and  wind  belts  should  the 
mountains  along  the  eastern  coast  have  any 
influence  upon  the  climate  of  the  interior? 

How  does  the  distribution  of  the  settlements  corre- 
spond with  what  we  would  think  ought  to  be  the 
distribution  of  the  rainfall? 

From  what  direction  is  it  likely  the  natives  originally 
came? 

Find  the  Great  Barrier  Reef  and  tell  what  you  can 
about  its  influence  upon  navigation. 

PROBLEMS 

AUSTRALIA  LIES  FAR  FROM  THE  CENTRES  OF 
THE  WORLD'S  ACTIVITIES;  POSSESSES  AN 
UNFAVORABLE  COAST  LINE;  A  DESERT  IN- 
TERIOR; IS  IN  MOST  PARTS  LACKING  IN 
NATIVE  PLANTS  AFFORDING  HUMAN  FOOD, 
AND  IS  WITHOUT  ANIMALS  SUCH  AS  ARE 


AUSTRALIA  227 

USED  FOR  DOMESTIC  PURPOSES  ON  THE 
OTHER  CONTINENTS.  HOW  IS  IT  POSSI- 
BLE THAT  SUCH  A  LAND  SHOULD,  SINCE 
CAPT.  COOK  SAILED  ALONG  ITS  SHORES 
LESS  THAN  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  FIFTY 
YEARS  AGO,  HAVE  DEVELOPED  INTO  A 
FLOURISHING  ENGLISH  COLONY  OF  MORE 
THAN  FIVE  MILLION  PEOPLE? 

What  is  there  so  unusual  about  Australia  that  we 
speak  of  it  as  the  "Odd  One"  of  the  continents? 

A.  Surface. 

1.  Australia  has  fewer  mountains  than  any  other 
continent. 

2.  The  surface  is  on  the  whole  the  lowest  of  any  of  the 
continents. 

3.  It  is  almost  without  navigable  rivers. 

B.  Climate. 

1.  With  the  exception  of  a  portion  of  India  the  tropic 
heat  is  more  uncomfortable  than  that  of  any  other 
continent. 

2.  A  larger  proportion  of  the  surface  is  desert  than  is 
found  on  any  other  continent. 

C.  Life. 

1.  The  flora  is  beautiful  and  unlike  any  other  land.  Of 
the  ten  thousand  species  of  plants  nearly  all  are  found  only 
in  Australia. 

2.  The  animal  types  are  different  from  those  of  any 
other  land  except  some  of  the  neighboring  islands. 

3.  The  natives  are  the  most  primitive  of  any  oi  the 
human  rate. 

What  is  there  about  the  coast  that  is  unfavorable  to 
settlement? 

1.  There  are  few  deep  indentations. 

2.  The  largest  bay  lies  in  the  tropics  and  the  land- 
about  it  are  hot  and  unhealthy. 


2  28  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHIES 

3.  A  wall  of  cliffs  forms  the  southern  coast  for  nearly 
1000  miles. 

What  is  there  about  the  climate  that  makes  settlement 
difficult? 

1.  The    northern    part    lies    within    the    hot,    moist 
tropics. 

2.  The  greater  part  of  the  interior  is  either  a  desert  or  is 
subject  to  frequent  droughts. 

Judging  from  its  position  should  we  not  expect 
Australia  to  be  well  watered? 

1.  During  the  Australian  summer  tropical  rains  fall 
upon  the  northern  coastal  region. 

2.  During  the  winter  the  southeast  trade  winds  bring 
rain  to  the  eastern  coast. 

3.  During  the  winter  the  westerly  winds  bring  rain  to 
the  southern  coast. 

Since  Australia  lies  in  three  rain  belts  how  can  we  ex- 
plain the  fact  that  half  the  continent  is  an  unin- 
habitable desert? 

1.  The  tropical  rains,  though  heavy  on  the  coast, 
rapidly  decrease  toward  the  interior. 

2.  The  most  of  the  moisture  brought  by  the  southeast 
trade  winds  is  cut  off  by  the  Great  Dividing  Range  lying 
close  to  the  eastern  coast. 

3.  The  westerly  rain  winds  reach  only  the  extreme 
southern  portion. 

How  does  the  nature  of  the  surface  of  the  interior 
farther  aid  in  making  it  dry  and  uninhabitable? 

1.  The  interior,  west  of  the  Darling  River  basin,  slopes 
inward  from  all  sides  like  a  gigantic  saucer. 

2.  Mountains  extend  east  and  west  through  the  heart 
of  the  desert  but  they  are  not  high  enough  to  increase  the 
rainfall. 

3.  The  surface  of  the  interior  is  for  the  greater  part  a 
gravelly  plain  600  to  1000  feet  high. 


AUSTRALIA  2  20 

How  does  the  yearly  drought  of  six  to  seven  months  in 
tropical  Australia  affect  the  vegetation  and  the 
supply  of  native  foods? 

i.  The  long  drought  is  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of 
tropical  food  plants. 

2.  It  is  only  on  the  immediate  coast  that  the  rain  is 
sufficient  to  produce  a  jungle  growth. 

3.  A  short  distance  from  the  coast  the  forest  becomes 
open  and  park-like. 

4.  Inland  from  the  open  forest  belt  there  is  rain  enough 
to  produce  only  savannas  or  grass-lands  with  scattered 
scrubby  tree  growth  (the  Bush). 

5.  After  passing  through  the  savannas  one  enters  upon 
the  desert. 

How  is  it  that  the  area  of  native  food  plants  is  mostly 
confined  to  the  east  coast? 

1.  Owing  to  a  partial  mingling  of  the  tropic  and  south- 
east trade  wind  belts  the  dry  period  is  not  as  long  on  the 
east  coast  as  in  the  north. 

2.  On  the  east  coast  are  found  wild  rice,  wild  bananas, 
wild  figs,  mangosteen  and  tobacco. 

What  sort  of  a  climate  should  we  expect  of  Southern 
Australia  lying  as  it  does  partially  within  the 
sweep  of  the  westerly  winds? 

1.  The  westerly  winds  reach  the  edge  of  the  continent 
in  winter  bringing  rain,  but  the  summers  are  dry. 

2.  This  Mediterranean  climate  is  suited  to  growing  the 
orange,  lemon,  tig,  grape,  etc. 

How  can  we  explain  the  peculiarities  of  the  plant  life 
of  Australia? 

1.  The  extreme  heat  and  dryness  of  summer  causes  the 
leaves  to  either  become  small  as  in  the  case  of  the  acacias 
or  to  grow  fully  on  edge  as  in  the  case  of  the  eucalyptus. 

2.  Australia  is  so  far  from  the  other  continents  that 
none  of  their  plants  have  been  able  to  reach  it. 


23O  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

Why  is  it  that  the  native  animals  are  so  different  from 
those  of  the  other  continents  and  of  no  value  for 
domestic  purposes? 

1.  Water  barriers  have  prevented  the  great  mammals 
fromlJVeaching  Australia. 

2.  Ancient  forms  that  have  mostly  died  out  on  other 
continents  have  lived  to  the  present  time  in  Australia 
because  they  had  few  enemies. 

3.  The  marsupials,  of  which  the  kangaroo  is  the  largest, 
and  other  animals  that  lay  eggs  like  reptiles,  are  the  most 
interesting. 

Should  we  not  also  look  for  peculiar  bird  life? 

1.  There  is  an  extraordinary  wealth  of  bird  life  due 
partly  to  the  absence  of  animals  that  feed  upon  them. 

2.  Since  the  birds  have  few  enemies  many  of  the  larger 
kinds  have  taken  to  a  life  upon  the  ground;  some  have 
lost  the  use  of  their  wings;  others  have  lost  their  wings 
altogether. 

The  natives  belong  to  an  ancient  race  that  seems  to 
have  stopped  making  any  progress. 

1.  In  habits  and  customs  the  native  Australians  are  like 
people  who  lived  long  ago  in  what  we  call  The  Stone  Age. 

2.  These  people  are  thought  to  belong  to  the  Caucasian 
race.  Their  nearest  relatives  live  upon  the  Deccan 
Plateau  in  India. 

In  how  far  is  the  land  they  live  in  the  possible  cause 
of  the  backwardness  of  the  native  Australians? 

1.  Like  the  plants  and  other  animals  the  Australians 
have  been  isolated  upon  their  continent  for  a  very  long 
time. 

2.  The  climatic  conditions  as  well  as  the  plants  are  in 
most  parts  not  favorable  to  the  development  of  agriculture. 

3.  There  are  no  native  animals  that  the  Australian  could 
tame  for  his  use. 


AUSTRALIA  23 1 

4.  The  climate  is  mild  and  there  is  little  need  of  covering 

or  shelter. 

Has  the  dependence  upon  hunting  had  the  same  effect 
upon  the  Australians  as  it  has  upon  the  Bushmen 
of  South  Africa  and  the  natives  of  Terra  del 
Fuego? 

1.  To  obtain  food  they  must  continually  move  from 
place  to  place  following  the  game. 

2.  The  building  of  homes  and  the  development  of 
agriculture  was  impossible. 

3.  The  bow  and  arrow  were  not  known  and  the  boom- 
erang took  their  place. 

4.  They  cannot  adapt  themselves  to  civilization  and 
are  dying  off. 

Why  is  it  that  the  great  desert  of  the  central  part  can 
never  be  settled  up  as  are  large  areas  of  our 
deserts? 

1.  The  deserts  of  the  United  States  either  have  high 
mountains  near  them  which  supply  some  water,  or  they 
have  rivers  flowing  through  them. 

2.  The  Australian  desert  receives  some  flood  water 
from  the  coast  lands  about  its  margin  but  it  is  bordered 
by  no  high  mountains. 

3.  Some  of  the  small  basins  contain  salty  lakes. 

4.  Wells  sunk  in  the  desert  region  reach  water  but  it  is 
usually  too  salty  for  use  in  irrigation. 

In  what  way  is  it  unfavorable  for  Australian  Settle- 
ment that  its  tropical  portion  is    low  while  its 
higher  lands,  the  Australian  Alps,  lie  in  the  Tem- 
perate Latitude? 
1.   Tropical  highlands  make  healthful  homes  for  white 
people.      Illustrate. 

2.  Lowlands  in  temperate  latitudes  are  more  advan- 
tageous than  highlands. 


232  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHIES 

How  is  it  that  the  English  have  had  so  much  difficulty 
in  exploring  the  interior  since  there  are  no  High 
Mountains  in  the  way? 

1.  There  are  no  navigable  streams  except  the  Murray- 
Darling  for  a  part  of  the  year. 

2.  The  Great  Dividing  Range,  though  not  high,  is  very 
rough  with  deep  canyons. 

3.  The  vast  desert  has  no  oases<,  and  all  the  water  needed 
in  traversing  it  must  be  carried  on  camels  imported  for 
the  purpose. 

What  are  the  unfavorable  conditions  under  which  the 
early  settlements  grew  up? 

1.  Slow  sailing  vessels  were  the  only  means  of  com- 
munication with  the  distant  home-land. 

2.  There  are  great  extremes  in  rainfall  and  the  heat  is 
often  very  great. 

3.  There  was  little  market  for  any  produce  except  wool 
until  the  development  of  the  modern  steamer. 

What  remarkable  similarity  is  there  between  the  early 
development  of  Australia  and  California? 

1.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  California  in  1849  started 
a  great  migration  to  that  distant  land  from  all  parts  of 
the  earth. 

2.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  Australia  in  1851  by  a 
returned  California  miner  started  a  tide  of  migration  to 
that  still  more  distant  land. 

3.  The  population  of  Xew  South  Wales  and  Queenstown 
increased  by  hundreds  of  thousands  in  five  years. 

Why  is  it  that  most  of  the  population  and  all  the  large 
cities  are  on  the  coast? 

i.  Trade  between  the  different  colonies  and  with  distant 
lands  is  all  by  water. 

2.  The  coast  regions  are  the  best  watered  and  all,  with 
the  exception  of  the  north  coast  are  healthful, 


AUSTRALIA  233 

3.  Successful  farming  is  so  dependent  upon  rainfall  that 

most  of  the  people  thus  engaged  live  in  the  coast  belt. 

Since  the  larger  part  of  Australia  is  either  a  true  desert 

or  has  a  very  light  rainfall  how  is  it  that  it  exports 

not  only  a  great  amount  of  wheat  but  immense 

quantities  of  wool,  leather,  meat  and  butter? 

1.  A  broad  belt  in  which  there  is  rain  enough  for  wheat 
borders  the  eastern  and  southeastern  coasts,  and  reaches 
into  the  Murray-Darling  Valley. 

2.  Farther  inland  where  the  rainfall  is  less  than  20 
inches  there  is  a  belt  known  as  the  "bush"  where  chief 
industry  is  cattle  grazing. 

3.  Still  farther  toward  the  interior  there  is  a  vast  area 
where  on  ordinary  years  there  is  excellent  forage  for  sheep. 
How  is  it  that  West  Australia,  which  is  desert  except 

for  a  coastal  fringe,  has  become  so  important  in 
recent  years? 

1.  Rich  deposits  of  gold  have  been  found  in  the  desert 
hundreds  of  miles  from  permanent  water. 

2.  A  steel  water  pipe  33  inches  in  diameter  carries  water 
351  miles  to  the  mining  cities  of  Kalgoorlie  and  Coolgardie. 

3.  A  railroad  about  2000  miles  long  now  connects  West 
Australia  with  Port  Augusta  in  South  Australia. 

What  advantages  does  the  island  of  Tasmania  offer 
compared  with  Australia? 
t.   The  island  lies  all  of  the  year  in  the  westerly  wind 
belt. 

2.  The  climate  is  neither  very  hot  nor  very  cold. 

3.  The  soil  is  fertile,  producing  grains,  temperate  fruits, 
sheep.      Gold  and  tin  are  mined. 

In  how  far  will  Australians  be  able  to  overcome  the 
disadvantages  of  their  continent? 
r.  Irrigation  systems  are  being  built   in  the   .Murray- 
Darling  basin. 


234  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

2.  Steamers  now  carry  refrigerator  meats  and  fruits  to 
distant  countries. 

3.  The  tropical  portion  can  be  made  fruitful  if  the  gov- 
ernment will  permit  the  coming  of  Asiatic  laborers  able 
to  stand  the  climate. 

SPECIAL  PROBLEMS 

What  is  there  about  the  climate  and  resources  of 
Australia  which  helps  us  to  understand  why  the 
Malays  or  Polynesians  did  not  over  run  the 
continent  and  drive  out  the  more  primitive 
inhabitants? 

How  is  it  that  Australia  has  no  native  animals  useful 
in  domestication  while  all  the  other  continents 
contain  many  kinds? 

Why  do  we  consider  agriculture  and  domestic  animals 
so  necessary  to  a  civilized  life? 

Would  Australia  have  been  a  richer  continent,  capable 
of  supporting  a  greater  population  if  the  moun- 
tains had  been  in  the  centre  or  western  part 
instead  of  close  to  the  eastern  coast?  Compare 
with  South  America. 

Why  is  it  that  sea  commerce  plays  a  greater  part  in  the 
life  of  the  Australians  than  in  the  life  of  the  people 
of  any  other  continent? 

How  does  Australia  compare  with  Japan  and  England 
in  its  dependence  upon  the  ocean? 

Why  do  we  speak  of  the  coast  line  as  being  unfavor- 
able to  the  development  of  the  continent 
notwithstanding  there  are  many  little  bays? 
Compare  with  the  Iberian  Peninsula  in  this 
regard. 

Why  have  important  settlements  failed  to  grow  up 


AUSTRALIA  235 

on  the  northern  coast  although  it  has  a  heavy 
rainfall? 

Why  have  no  cities  grown  up  at  the  mouth  or  along 
the  banks  of  the  Murray -Darling  Rivers? 

What  is  the  reason  for  the  fact  that  all  the  important 
cities  are  situated  upon  the  southeastern  coast? 

How  is  it  that  Australia  ships  apples  and  sometimes 
meat  to  the  United  States  which  is  itself  an 
exporter  of  these  products? 

What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  for  Aus- 
tralian development  of  the  law  prohibiting  the 
coming  of  Chinese,  Japanese,  Malays,  etc.? 

How  can  we  explain  the  fact  that  while  parts  of  Aus- 
tralia are  suffering  from  unusual  drought  other 
parts  are  experiencing  disastrous  floods? 


TOPICS  FOR  ORAL  DISCUSSION  OR  WRITTEN 
REPORTS 

What  Capt.  Cook  had  to  do  with  making  Australia 
known. 

The  extinct  natives  of  Tasmania. 

The  character  and  habits  of  the  native  Australians. 

Difficulties  of  making  settlements  in  tropical  Australia. 

The  difficulties  of  exploring  the  great  desert. 

The  strange  animals  and  plants. 

The  effect  of  great  heat  and  lack  of  moisture  on  the 
plants  of  Australia. 

The  desert  mining  camps  of  Western  Austialia. 

The  Australian  Alps. 

Life  on  a  sheep  ranch. 

Why  the  exports  of  Australia  are  mostly  raw  products. 

The  great  barrier  reel. 


236  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHIES 

SECTION    3.  THE    ISLANDS    OF  THE  PACIFIC 

TOPIC 

THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC :— THOSE  IS- 
LANDS—THOUSANDS IN  NUMBER  AND 
OFTEN  OF  EXTRAORDINARY  BEAUTY- 
SCATTERED  SINGLY  AND  IN  GROUPS  OVER 
HALF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN;  BEING  IN 
SOME  CASES  THE  HIGHER  PARTS  OF  A 
SUNKEN  LAND;  IN  OTHERS  THE  TOPS  OF 
SUB -MARINE  VOLCANOES;  AND  IN  STILL 
OTHERS  OF  CORAL  GROWTH :— ISLANDS 
WHOSE  INHABITANTS  BELONG  TO  DIF- 
FERENT RACES  AND  RANGE  IN  THEIR 
CONDITION  FROM  FIERCE  CANNIBALS  TO 
GENTLE  HALF  CIVILIZED  PEOPLES. 

MAP  STUDIES 

Where  lies  the  boundary  between  the  Asiatic  islands 

already  studied  and  those  included  among  the 

Pacific  Islands? 
How  are  the  islands  distributed  as  regards  the  tropics? 
Do  the  islands  generally  occur  in  groups  or  singly? 
Why  do  we  think  that  New  Guinea,  the  Moluccas, 

Caroline  Islands  and  other  small  groups  once 

formed  a  part  of  a  larger  Australian  continent? 
What  does  the  map  show  to  be  the  character  of  the 

surface  of  the  larger  islands? 
What  is  the  general  name  given  to  the  east  and  west 

line  of  islands  lying  north  of  Australia?     What  is 

the  meaning  of  the  name? 
Why  are  the  groups  of  islands  lying  in  the  Pacific  east 

of  the  Philippine  Islands  called  Micronesia? 
What  do  we  mean  when  we  speak  of  Polynesia? 


THE    ISLANDS    OF    THE   PACIFIC  237 

Which  of  the  Pacific  islands  must  have  the  coldest 

climate? 
What  large  island  is  traversed  its  whole  length  by  a 

range  of  lofty  mountains? 
What  extremes  of  climate  must  this  island  possess 

although  it  lies  almost  under  the  equator? 
About  what  important  islands  does  the  map  show  that 

the  waters  are  shallow? 
What  important  group  of  islands  rises  from  the  deepest 

part  of  the  Pacific? 
How  does  New  Guinea  compare  in  size  with  Borneo, 

Sumatra,  Madagascar  and  Greenland? 

PROBLEMS 

HOW  IS  IT  THAT  PRIMITIVE  PEOPLES  WERE 
ABLE  LONG  AGO  TO  REACH  THE  ISLANDS 
OF  THE  PACIFIC  WITH  ONLY  RUDE  BOATS 
THOUGH  MANY  OF  THE  ISLANDS  ARE  FAR 
APART,  AND  THAT  IN  SPITE  OF  THE  FACT 
THAT  NATURE  HAD  SUPPLIED  UPON  MOST 
OF  THEM  AN  ABUNDANCE  OF  FOOD  THESE 
PEOPLES  REMAINED  UP  TO  THE  TIME  OF 
THEIR  DISCOVERY  IN  A  SAVAGE  OR  SEMI- 
CIVILIZED  CONDITION? 

We  have  learned  that  the  Australians  were  backward 
partly  because  they  had  to  depend  almost  wholly 
upon  hunting  for  a  living.  How  can  we  explain 
the  backwardness  of  the  Islanders  who  have  an 
abundance  of  food? 

1.  T11  both  cases  domestic  animals  were  lacking. 

2.  The  Australians  had  to  struggle  too  hard  to  get  food. 

3.  The  islanders  failed  to  make  progress  partly  because 
they  did  not  have  to  exert  themselves  to  get  their  food 


238  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHIES 

4.  The  islands  aie  in  most  cases  so  far  apart  that  there 
was  little  interchange  of  ideas,  no  tiading  between  them. 
This  condition  is  unfavorable  to  progress. 
How  can  we  account  for  the  first  settlement  of  the  far 
scattered  islands  of  the  Pacific? 

1.  The  ancestors  of  the  present  islanders  must  have 
lived  upon  the  Asiatic  coast  and  have  been  accustomed  to 
a  sea-faring  life. 

2.  The  steady  trade  winds  were  favorable  to  voyages 
of  exploration  in  small  boats. 

3.  Westerly  storms  have  been  known  to  blow  Japanese 
fishermen  across  the  Pacific  to  the  shores  of  North 
America. 

How    do    we    find    the    different    races    distributed 
throughout  the  islands? 

1.  The  Malays  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago (Asiatic  islands). 

2.  The  Papuans  are  found  in  Melanesia  (Islands  of  the 
Blacks)  including  New  Guinea  and  near-by  islands. 

3.  The  Polynesians  live  upon  the  out-lying  islands  in- 
cluding the  Hawaiian,  Fiji.  Samoan,  Marquesas,  New 
Zealand,  Society  and  othei  islands. 

4.  The  Micronesians — mixtuie  of  Papuans  and  Poly- 
nesians— are  found  upon  the  Caroline,  Marshall  and 
associated  islands. 

How  do  the  character  and  habits  of  the  different  island 
races  help  us  to  understand  their  distribution? 

1.  The  Polynesians  are  a  bold  race  noted  for  their  daring 
upon  the  sea.  They  are  tall,  brown  in  color,  have 
straight  black  haii,  often  fierce  fighters  and  cannibals. 
Engage  in  boat  building,  agriculture,  fibie  weaving. 

2.  The  Papuans  are  mostly  savages.  They  hunt,  fish 
and  carry  on  some  agricultuie.  Do  not  venture  far  upon 
the*  sea. 


THE    ISLANDS    OF    THE    PACIFIC  239 

3.  The  coast  Malays  of  the  Asiatic  Islands  are  expert 
seamen  but  visited  and  mixed  only  with  the  nearer  of  the 
islanders  (Papuans). 
What  is  the  explanation  of  the  fact  that  although  most 

of  the  Pacific  islands  lie  within  the  tropics  they  are 

ordinarily  pleasant  and  healthful? 

1.  The  smaller  islands  are  perpetually  cooled  by  the 
trade  winds. 

2.  The  mountains  where  high  enough  offer  a  temperate 
climate. 

Why  is  it  that  the  small  islands  often  have  a  poor  soil 
and  support  a  scanty  vegetation? 

1.  Many  of  the  small  islands  are  of  coral  origin,  rising 
but  a  few  feet  above  high  tide. 

2.  The  vegetation  is  chiefly  confined  to  those  plants  the 
seeds  of  which  were  brought  by  the  ocean  currents,  such 
as  coconut  and  breadfruit  trees. 

How  can  we  explain  the  origin  of  those  wonderfully 
beautiful  coral  islands  known  as  atolls  or  lagoon 
islands? 

1.  The  coral  insect  cannot  live  where  the  water  is  more 
than  120  feet  deep. 

2.  Owing  to  the  irregularities  of  the  bottom,  coral  reefs 
are  sometimes  circular  and  inclose  an  area  of  deep  water 
where  the  corals  cannot  live  and  work. 

3.  The  reef  may  finally  become  dry  land  on  which 
coconut  palms  spring  up. 

4.  The  inclosed  water  or  lagoon  is  deep  and  quiet 
usually  with  one  or  more  passages  connecting  with  the 
open  ocean. 

How  is  it  that  navigation  is  dangerous  in  these  coral 
seas? 
1.  Thousands  of  reefs,  in  some  cases  hundred-  of  miles 
long    and    indicated    by   lines    of    breakers,   are  scattered 
over  these  tropical  seas. 


240  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

2.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year  there  are  dangerous 
tropical  huiricanes. 

How  came  the  Pacific  Islands,  so  remote  and  generally 
so  small,  rising  from  a  sea  infested  with  reefs  and 
inhabited  by  cannibals  to  become  the  goal  of  in- 
numerable trading  vessels  during  the  last  fifty 
years? 
i.  The  coconut  palm  serves  the  natives  in  innumerable 
ways.     Without  it  most  of  the  islands  would  never  have 
become  permanently  inhabited. 

2.  The  coconut  palms  supply  coconuts  and  copra  which 
have  important  uses  in  civilized  life. 

NEW  ZEALAND— THE  PEARL   OF  THE  SOUTH 

SEAS 

PROBLEM 

HOW  IS  IT  THAT  THE  ISLANDS  KNOWN  AS 
NEW  ZEALAND,  THOUGH  SITUATED  IN  A 
REMOTE  PART  OF  THE  SOUTH  PACIFIC, 
HAVE  BECOME,  IN  LESS  THAN  A  CENTURY 
FROM  THE  DATE  OF  THE  FIRST  SETTLE- 
MENT, A  PROSPEROUS  ENGLISH  COLONY 
POSSESSING  A  HIGH  DEGREE  OF  CUL- 
TURE? 

What  difficulties  were  experienced  by  the  early  set- 
tlers of  New  Zealand? 

i .  Communication  by  sailing  vessel  half  way  around  the 
world  was  uncertain. 

2.  The  native  Maoris,  a  bold  and  warlike  race,  in- 
telligent but  at  the  same  time  cannibals,  offered  great 
resistance. 

In  what  respects  is  the  climate  far  more  favorable  to 
settlement  than  is  that  of  most  of  Australia? 


THE    ISLANDS    OF    THE    PACIFIC  24 1 

i.  Latitude  gives  the  island  all  the  advantages  any 
land  could  have. 

2.  North  Island  lies  in  the  Mediterranean  belt. 

3.  South  Island  lies  in  the  belt  of  westerlies  with  a 
climate  much  like  that  of  England. 

How  has  the  nature  of  the  surface  taken  in  connection 
with  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds  affected 
the  development  of  the  islands? 

1.  North  Island  has  a  rolling  surface,  from  which  rise 
lofty  volcanoes,  and  sufficient  rain  to  cover  it  with 
forests. 

2.  A  range  of  lofty  mountains  extends  along  the  west 
side  of  South  Island  partly  breaking  the  force  of  the 
stormy  westerlies. 

3.  The  eastern  slope  of  South  Island  is  broad  and 
grassy. 

What  should  we  expect  from  the  above  conditions 
would  be  the  chief  industries? 

1.  North  Island  affords  timber,  semi- tropic  fruits. 

2.  South  Island  produces  wheat,  flax  and  temperate 
fruits. 

3.  The  upland  meadows  of  South  Island  support  great 
numbers  of  cattle. 

4.  The  drier  lower  plains  covered  with  wiry  grasses  are 
given  over  to  sheep. 

5.  The  mountains  contain  such  minerals  as  gold,  copper 
and  coal. 

What  wonderful  natural  scenery  draws  people  from  all 
parts  of  the  world? 

1 .  North  Island  is  volcanic.  It  possesses  boiling  springs 
and  geysers  similar  to  those  of  the  Yellowstone  Park. 

2.  The  tropical  vegetation  of  North  Island  is  rich  and 
beautiful.  It  includes  giant  fern.-,  coconut  and  sago 
palm-,  bananas,  etc. 


242  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

3.  The   Southern   Alps   of   South   Island   rise   in   Mt. 
Cook  to   12,349  feet.     The  lake  and  mountain  scenery 
together  with  the  enormous  glaciers  rival  the  Swiss  Alps. 
What  can  we  predict  as  to  the  future  of  New  Zealand? 

1.  The  islands  must  grow  in  importance  as  a  tourist 
resort. 

2.  Manufacturing  must  become  important  because  of 
an  abundance  of  water  power,  coal  and  raw  products. 

3.  The  inhabitants  should  exhibit  a  high  culture  be- 
cause of  favorable  life  conditions. 

NEW  GUINEA— THE  LARGEST  OF  THE  TROP- 
ICAL ISLANDS 

How  is  it  that  the  Island  of  New  Guinea,  three 
times  the  size  of  New  Zealand,  mountainous 
and  well  watered,  has  been  only  partly  explored 
and  still  remains  in  great  part  in  possession  of  its 
savage  inhabitants? 

1.  The  island  lies  in  the  heart  of  the  tropics. 

2.  The     lowlands     are     hot     and    moist    and     often 
unhealthful. 

3.  Owing  to  the  heavy  rains  and  heat  the  vegetation  is 
so  dense  that  exploration  is  difficult. 

4.  A    mountain    range,    peaks  of  which  reach   13,000 
feet  extends  the  length  of  the  island. 

5.  Many  of  the  native  tribes  of  the  interior  are  fierce 
cannibals. 

In  what  respects  do  the  character  and  habits  of  the 
Papuans  indicate  that  they  are  only  little  more 
advanced  than  the  Australians? 

1.  They  have  no  domestic  animals  but  engage  to  some 
extent  in  agriculture. 

2.  They  live  sometimes  in  pile  dwellings  similar  to  those 
of  the  Malays  and  sometimes  in  trees. 


THE    ISLANDS    OF    THE   PACIFIC  243 

3.  They  make  pottery  but  do  not  know  the  use  of 
metals. 

4.  The  hot  moist  climate  and  fairly  abundant  food 
supply  do  not  encourage  exertion. 

Since  New  Guinea  was  once  connected  with  Australia 
should  we  not  expect  to  find  the  animal  and  bird 
life  very  similar? 

1.  There  is  the  same  rich  bird  life  as  in  Australia  and 
in  addition  the  beautiful  Bird  of  Paradise. 

2.  There  are  many  of  the  marsupial  animals  of  Australia 
but  not  the  kangaroo  which  is  adapted  to  a  more  open 
country. 

3.  The  most  dangerous  animal  is  the  crocodile.  Like 
Australia  it  has  many  poisonous  snakes. 

What  can  we  say  as  to  the  likelihood  of  New  Guinea 
ever  becoming  the  home  of  civilized  people? 

1.  The  Fly  River  has  been  ascended  in  a  small  boat  500 
miles.  This  shows  there  must  be  a  vast  lowland  capable  of 
cultivation. 

2.  The  island  is  suited  to  the  production  of  coconuts  and 
copra,  rubber,  pineapples,  etc. 

3.  Gold  and  other  minerals  are  known  to  occur  on  the 
island. 

The  forest  jungles  can  be  cleared  and  the  natives  more 
or  less  civilized  but  can  white  people  ever  live 
there  comfortably? 

1.  The  mountains  above  3000  feet  have  an  agreeable, 
healthful  climate. 

2.  Parts  of  the  lowlands  exposed  to  the  trade  winds  are 
fairly  healthful. 

Is  not  the  fact  that  three  nations  divided  up  New 
Guinea  an  indication  that  it  is  considered  to  be  of 
great  value? 
1.   The  western  part  is  held  by  the  Dutch. 


244  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHIES 

2.  The  southeastern  part  is  a  British  possession. 

3.  The  northeastern  part,  formerly  held  by  Germany  is 
now  under  the  control  of  the  Australian  government. 

THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS— THE  CROSS  ROADS 
OF  THE  PACIFIC 

Why  do  we  speak  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  as  occupy- 
ing a  cross  roads  position? 

1.  The  islands  form  a  station  on  the  trade  route  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  China,  Japan  and  the 
Philippines. 

2.  The  islands  lie  on  the  route  from  Puget  Sound  and 
San  Francisco  to  Australia  and  New  Zealand. 

3.  The  route  from  China  and  Japan  to  the  Panama 
Canal  passes  the  islands. 

Why  are  the  islands,  though  far  from  the  Pacific  Coast 
of  America,  so  important  to  the  United  States? 

1.  The  islands  are  important  as  a  naval  and  supply 
station. 

2.  The  islands  are  rich  and  highly  productive. 

How  is  it  that  the  islands,  though  lying  in  the  tropics, 
are  healthful  and  attractive  as  a  summer  and 
winter  resort? 

1.  The  ocean  currents  and  northeast  trade  winds  make 
the  climate  equable  and  cooler  than  any  other  tropical 
lowland. 

2.  The  islands  possess  a  rich  vegetation  and  attractive 
volcanic  scenery. 

What  is  there  so  interesting  about  the  story  of  the 
Hawaiian  Islands? 
1.  The  islands  are  the  unsubmerged  top  of  a  mighty 
volcanic  mass  the  bottom  of  which  lies  in  the  deepest 
Pacific,  while  the  highest  point  rises  13,000  feet  above  the 
ocean's  surface. 


THE    ISLANDS    OF    THE    PACIFIC  245 

2.  Mauna  Loa  and  Mauna  Kea  aie  the  highest  peaks. 

The  crater  of  Kilauea  is  at  times  a  vast  lake  of  seething 

lava. 

What  tropical  products  do  we  receive  in  large  quanti- 
ties from  these  islands?  (Cane  sugar,  pine- 
apples, bananas.) 

Can  we  expect  the  Hawaiian  Islanders  to  do  all  the 
work  of  raising  these  products? 

1.  The  Hawaiians.  like  other  tropical  peoples,  do  not 
love  hard  work.  They  are  intelligent  and  fond  of  music 
but  are  slowly  disappearing. 

2.  The  Japanese  form  the  bulk  of  the  field  laborers. 

3.  Since  the  islands  lie  at  a  cross  ioads  there  is  a  great 
variety  of  other  peoples  to  be  found  there. 

THE  FIJI  AND  SAMOAN  ISLANDS— THE  PARA- 
DISE OF  THE  PACIFIC 

Why  do  we  choose  the  above  groups  of  islands  as 
types  of  the  many  attractive  islands  of  the 
Pacific? 

1.  The  islands  lie  near  the  main  route  from  the  United 
States  to  New  Zealand  and  Australia. 

2.  Since  the  islands  are  small  the  trade  winds  make  them 
comfortable  and  healthful. 

3.  The  lofty  volcanic  mountains  are  picturesque. 

4.  Tropical  vegetation  is  varied  and  fruits  are  abundant. 

5.  The  islands  have  become  noted  through  the  writings 
of  Stevenson. 

SPECIAL  PROBLEMS 

Why  is  it  that  those  islands  possessing  high  mountains 
have  a  much  greater  variety  of  vegetation  than  the 
low  islands? 


246  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHIES 

How  can  we  explain  the  presence  of  vast  numbers  of 
coral  reefs  and  low  coral  islands? 

What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the 
reefs  that  surround  many  of  the  smaller  islands? 

Why  is  it  that  the  natives  of  such  pleasant  islands  did 
not  become  civilized  since  we  believe  the  Austra- 
lians remained  savages  partly  because  of  the 
poverty  of  their  land? 

How  can  we  explain  the  vegetation  that  springs  up  on 
coral  reefs  as  soon  as  they  rise  above  the  ocean 
waves? 

Why  is  it  that  New  Zealand  has  advanced  more 
rapidly  in  culture  than  Argentine,  the  only  other 
important  country  in  the  same  latitude  in  the  S. 
hemisphere? 

If  the  Polynesians  could  reach  the  outer  islands  of  the 
Pacific  why  could  they  not  reach  America? 

What  is  likely  to  remain  the  chief  industry  of  the 
smaller  islands? 

TOPICS  FOR  ORAL  DISCUSSION  OR  WRITTEN 
REPORTS 

The  coconut  palm  and  its  products. 
The  characteristics  of  the  Maoris  of  New  Zealand. 
The  extinct  birds  of  New  Zealand. 
I  he  difficulty  of  exploring  New  Guinea. 
The  life  of  the  Papuans  of  New  Guinea  and    adjacent 
islands. 

The  geysers  and  hot  springs  of  New  Zealand. 
The  scenery  of  the  New  Zealand  Alps. 
Samoa     the  home  of  Stevenson. 
The  Hawaiian  Islanders. 
The  crater  of  Kilauea. 


THE    ISLANDS    OF    THE    PACIFIC  247 

The  Island  of  Guam. 
The  boats  of  the  Polynesians. 

The  differences  between  the  Polynesians,  the  Melane- 
sians  and  the  Micronesians. 
The  Marquesas  Islanders. 
The  voyages  of  Capt.  Cook  in  the  Pacific. 
Hawaii  at  the  cross  roads. 
Life  on  the  Fijian  Islands. 


NOTES 


NOTES 


NOTES 


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